The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention pursuant to United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture and Food Research Initiative, NIFA Grant (Nanoscale Science and Nanotechnology to Ensure Safe Food: Proposal Number: 2010-03459). This invention was made with government support under 1R43NS073185-01 awarded by National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under DC011130 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number R01DA021146-01A1 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers R01NS049251 and R01CA162477, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made in part with Government Support under National Institutes of Health and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke grant no. 1R21NS063131-01A1, and under National Institutes of Health and National Eye Institute grant no. 1R01EY021540-01A1. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Number HDTRA1-09-1-0001, awarded by the Dept of Defense/Defense Threat Reduction Agency and under Grant Number AI069350, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. AI071116 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HU0001-10-2-0002 awarded by Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Number G12MD007592 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities; Grant Number GM084863 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, National Institute of General Medical Sciences; Grant Number R01 DK078075, awarded by the National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; and Project Number Z01 SC010074 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under R01DE019926 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers 1RC2 AI087612-01 and 1U19AI091175-01 awarded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government Support under Grant No. CA0104082 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under 5R01 NS034239-14 and P01 NS43986-06 awarded by the National Institutes of Nuerological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government. This invention was made with government support under federal grant number R21 DK 077307-01 from the NIH. The U.S. Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under GM103432 awarded by the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, a division of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No.: W81XWH-05-1-0115 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. N000140810914 awarded by The U.S. Office of Naval Research. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under DMR0906567 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HL053793, HL098228, and AR046032 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was not made pursuant to a government agency grant or contract. No government funds were utilized in the described invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract DE-AC05-76RL 01830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant CHE-0911118 awarded by the National Science Foundation, and grant 1R01GM079670 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under National Science Foundation, Grant No. CHE-0748612. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under No. CHE-0748612, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number IIS-1019160 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant N00014-09-1-0511 awarded by the U.S. Navy Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. W-7405-ENG-82 between the U.S. Department of Energy and Iowa State University. The present invention was developed with funding from the Office of Naval Research under Grant N00014-01-1-0282. Therefore, the government retains certain rights in this invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07N27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Security. This invention was made with government support under Contract H92222-14-9-0001 awarded by the United States Special Operations Command. The government has certain rights in the invention. Some of the content herein was at least partially funded by a government contract, USEPA EP-D-07-086. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by, or for the Government of the United States of America, for governmental purposes without payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. The United States Government may have rights to this invention pursuant to grants from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Grant No. NNL06AA03A) and the National Science Foundation (Grant No. EPS-0132573). This invention was made with government support under DE-SC0000997 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy; DE-FG36-08DO18087 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy; DGE-1333468 awarded by the National Science Foundation; and DGE-0938033 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R01 GM049725 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under grant number U54MH084659, awarded by the National Institute of Health (NIH) and the GI Cancer SPORE grant P50CA095103. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number 1R21CA133652-01A1 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under AI067769, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant AG043415 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number 5R21HD061303 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. R01AI111539 and Grant No. R43AI109879 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant HD43108 from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and Grant W81XWH-04-1-0917 from the Department of Defense (DoD). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CA174428 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under R43 AI084291 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant AI065450 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers AI054961 and R01 GM078097 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. R00DK081610 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant CA120409 awarded by the National Cancer Institute. The government has certain rights in the invention. The research leading to the present invention was supported in part, by National Institutes of Health Grant No. P01 AI08677-01. Accordingly, the U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number RO1-CA156695 to Dr. George Coukos, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made by employees of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by and for the Government of the United States for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with support from a government grant under grant number EY11572 from the National Institute of Health. The government has retained certain rights in this invention. This invention was developed with Government support under Contract No. FA8650-07-C-5907 awarded by the Department of the Air Force. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers U42 RR018877 and U42 OD011140 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Numbers CA118085 and CA098210 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under RO1 DK081587 and U01 DK089533 each awarded by NIH. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grants R01 CA 098927 and R41 CA 108257 awarded by the United States National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. GM 66494 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and Contract No. DE-FG03-00ER45812 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract (DE FG36 GO88025) awarded by The US Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the support of the United States government under the terms of grant number PO1 Al094417 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract HL064274 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. R01 HL087285 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. CHE1012511, awarded by the National Science Foundation, and Grant No. R01HD065122, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract CA034233 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the support by Grant Number 5R44HG004284, awarded by the National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services. The U.S. government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under CA111275, CA132874, and CA069568 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and W81XWH-08-1-0110 awarded by the Army/MRMC. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. R01 CA128641, U01 CA111257, and R21 CA156944 awarded by the National Institute of Health, and Grant No. CBET-0937987 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has Certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R24 DK094575 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DE-EE0005003 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with U.S. Government support under Agreement No. N00421-02-3-3111 awarded by the Naval Air Systems Command. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 U.S.C. 202) in which the Contractor has elected to retain title. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. W911NF-07-D-0004 awarded by the Army Research Office. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number 1053956 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. CMMI-1053956 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. No Federal Government support was received in the development of this Invention. This invention was made with Government support under Award DE-AR0000044 awarded by the Office of ARPA-E U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The present application is a continuation of PCT Application No. PCT/US2012/072236, filed Dec. 30, 2012, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application 61/582,275, filed Dec. 31, 2011, each of which are incorporated herein by reference. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA8650-09-D-2923 0021 awarded by the United States Air Force. The government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DE-FE0007859 awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant number W911W6-11-2-0009 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract no. FA8650-09-D-2923 0021 awarded by the Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. This disclosure was made with government support under contract number FA8650-09-D-2923-0021 awarded by the United States Air Force. The Government has certain rights in the disclosure. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. FA9550-09-1-0537 and FA9550-12-1-0211 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Grant AOARD-10-4067 awarded by the Air Force, and MURI Grant No. N00014-08-1-0654 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention also was supported by Grant No. AT-0029 from the Robert A. Welch Foundation. This invention was made with Government support under National Science Foundation grant ECCS-1102397, and Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency grant N66001-10-1-4003. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The present invention was made with government support under NSF and DARPA Contract Nos. CNS-0430487, CNS-0752961, and CNS-0917134. The government has certain rights in this invention. The conditions under which this invention was made are such as to entitle the Government of the United States under paragraph 1(a) of Executive Order 10096, as represented by the Secretary of the Air Force, to the entire right, title and interest therein, including foreign rights. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government. The invention described was made in the performance of official duties by one or more employees of the Department of the Navy, and thus, the invention herein may be manufactured, used or licensed by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. The embodiments described herein may be manufactured, used, and/or licensed by or for the United States Government without the payment of royalties thereon. The United States Government has ownership rights in this invention. Licensing inquiries may be directed to Office of Research and Technical Applications, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, Pacific, Code 72120, San Diego, Calif., 92152; telephone (619) 553-5118; email: ssc_pac_t2@navy.mil, referencing NC 103643. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Number W81XWH-10-1-0518, awarded by the U.S. Army, Medical Research and Materiel Command. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NNX11CC08C awarded by NASA and under 5R44HG004290-03 awarded by the NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention was developed, in part, with support from the United States government under Grant No. HSHQDC-10-000197 from the Department of Homeland Security, and the United States government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. K08 HL087932 and P30 DK072506, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Nos. R01 CA161953, R01 CA134213, R01 EB006043, and T32 CA138312,awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number W81XWH-10-2-0130 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under U.S. Government Contract No. FA9453-05-C-0241 awarded by Air Force Research Laboratories. The Government may have rights to portions of this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number NNX10AI40H awarded by the National Aeronautics & Space Administration. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number 60NANB10D002 awarded by NEST (National Institute Of Standards And Technology). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was developed under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. The United States of America may have certain rights to this invention under Management and Operating Contract DE-AC05-060R23177 from the United States Department of Energy. This invention was at least partially supported by the Government under Contract #H92222-11-C-0034 awarded by U.S. Special Operations Command. This invention was made with government support under DMR1120923 awarded by the National Science Foundation; N00014-10-1-0942 awarded by the U.S. Navy Office of Naval Research; and W911NF-11-1-0359 awarded by the U.S. Army Research Office. The government has certain rights in the invention. This disclosure was made with Government support under N68335-11-C-0383 awarded by the United States Navy. The government may have certain rights. This invention was made with government support under contract number W90D0-20161 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under GM103401 and GM103910 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under CCF-1329374 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. EECS-0955157, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: HR0011-07-9-0002 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under B554331 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number H98230-11-3-0011 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: H98230-11-C-0276 awarded by Department of Defense (DOD). The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made by employees of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support from the National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, grant number PO1-CA80139. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 1R01EB009745 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number IIS-1213026 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Award No. IIS-213026 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and under Grant No. ARI73 awarded by U.S. DOT. The government has certain rights in the invention. The innovation described herein may be manufactured, used, imported, sold, and licensed by or for the Government of the United States of America without the payment of any royalty thereon or therefor. This invention was developed with support from the U.S. government under a contract with the United States Department of Energy, Contract No. DE-NA0000622. Accordingly, the U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under the Fermi Research Alliance, contract no. DE-AC02-07CH11359 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract HSHQDC-15-C-B0027 with the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under CHE1307264 awarded by National Science Foundation and DE-FG02-06ER15807 awarded by Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government and the UChicago Argonne, LLC, representing Argonne National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA8721-05-C-0002 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers CMMI1130407 and CMMI1130640 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CAREER CHE 0641353, CBET 730667 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and under Grant No. 2009-ST-108-LR0005 awarded by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The government has certain rights to this invention. Research leading to various aspects of the present invention was sponsored, at least in part, by the NIH, Grant No. 5DP1OD003900-04. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 1129802 and 0520527 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number DE-FC26-05NT42403 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under NIST ATP Award No. 70NANB043022 awarded by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The United States Government has certain rights in this invention pursuant to NIST ATP Award No. 70NANB043022 and pursuant to Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38 between the United States Government and the University of Chicago representing Argonne National Laboratory, and NIST 144 LM01, Subcontract No. AGT DTD Sep. 9, 2002. This invention was made with government support under DE-AR0000047 awarded by ARPA-E. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government. This invention was made with Government support under DE-AR0000465 awarded by DOE. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The present work is supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation No. CCG-1053838 SC#20101352. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made under a contract with an agency of the United States Government, contract number W911 NF-11-C-0069. The invention was developed with financial support from Grant No. DARPA N-ZERO-HR0011-15-C-0138 from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. The disclosed invention was made with government support under contract No. HR011-13-C-0079 awarded by the United States Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the present invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number CNS-1331652 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention was made with funding from the US National Science Foundation under CAREER award #0846489. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made by an employee of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. The invention was made with United States Government support under Contract No. HR0011-11-C-0126 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number FA9550-09-D-0207 awarded by the United States Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States for all governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government without the payment of royalties. This invention was made with government support under grant No. R24EY12893-01, which has been awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used and licensed by or for the U.S. Government for U.S. Government purposes without payment of any royalties thereon. This invention was made with Government support under contract HQ0147-13-C-0005 awarded by the U.S. Missile Defense Agency. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with Government support under grant No. HL089224 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. IIP-1217306 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number EB003472 awarded by NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this application pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This invention was partially made with government support under Pediatric Device Consortia Grant Program (PDC) awarded by the United States Food and Drug Administration. This invention was made with government support under AR061201 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the government support under W81XWH-11-2-0054 awarded by the US Defense Medical Research Development Program. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under Contract No. 8 RO1 EB00260-03 and Contract No. R24EY017045-01, which were awarded by the National Institute of Health. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. W81XWH-07-1-0212 awarded by the United States Army. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 5R01HL102482-04 and Grant No. 1R01MD007880-01, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers DK72517, HL73854, EB00415, EY13574, DK35124, and DK43840 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. R01CA127306, R01CA127306-03S1, 1P01CA95471-10, AND 5P50CA150964, awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The United States government may have certain rights to the invention. This work was supported by the following grant from the National Institutes of Health, Grant No: K08CA128972 (Bradner). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant HL092235 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. NS093756 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. DK084459 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. Portions of the present invention were made with support of the United States Government via a grant from the National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases to Morayama Reyes under grant number 1F31AI-Gn10291. The U.S. Government may therefore have certain rights in the invention. Part of the work performed during development of this invention utilized U.S. Government funds through National Institutes of Health Grant Nos. RO1 CA71508 and PO1 HL068686. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. W81XWH-08-1-0697 awarded by United States Army Medical Research Acquisition Activity. The government has certain rights in the invention. This work was funded in part by grant number NHLBI-44851 from the National Institutes of Health. Accordingly, the United States Government may have certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under R01-AI074283 and U54-AI057153 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. AI051622 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with federal funding under Grant Nos. W81XWH-07-1-0482 and W81XWH-09-0698/700 awarded by the Department of Defense and 1R01CA135242-01A2 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. W81XWH-10-2-0139 and the FY10 Defense Medical Research and Development Program Basic Research Award for Project D61_I_10_J2_235, both of which were awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. W81XWH-05-1-0115 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CA129822, Grant No. CA102126, and Grant No. CA116014 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. GM103480, NS057748 and CA116591 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and Grant No. W81XWH-09-1-0386awarded by the U.S. Army/Army Medical Research and Material Command. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R01 AI09728 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and CBET1125490 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States government support under federal STTR contract no. W81XWH-11-C-0008 awarded by the Department of Defense. The United States government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number HL095227 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights to this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for Governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties. United States government may own rights to the present invention as work done in development of the invention described herein was funded in whole or in part by Federal Grant No. F32-Ey14515 from the National Institutes of Health. This invention was made with government support under grant number CBET-1132157 awarded by the NSF. The government has certain rights in the invention. Various aspects of the present invention were made with U.S. Government support under grant numbers DMR-0213805 and DMR-0243715 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. N66001-11-1-4182 awarded by the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under R15-GM090248 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DE-FC26-05NT42457 awarded by the US Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made by an employee of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This disclosure was made with Government support under N00019-02-C-3003 awarded by The United States Air Force. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under HR00011-10-C-0025 and W91CRB-11-C-0047 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This disclosure was made with Government support under Contract No. FA8650-09-D-2923-AETD awarded by the Department of the Air Force. The Government has certain rights in this disclosure. The United States Government has rights in this invention under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 between the United States Department of Energy and the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, the Manager and Operator of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. This concept was made with United States government support under Award No. DE-EE0003303 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The United States government has certain rights in this concept. This invention was made with government support under contract number W91CRB-11-1-0002 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. NNH16C087C, awarded by NASA. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the U.S. Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The inventions described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the United States Government for government purposes without payment of any royalties. This invention was made with government support under Hatch Act Project Nos. PEN04224 and PEN04539, awarded by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number 2010-38502-21839 awarded by the United States Department of Agriculture through the National Institute of Food and Agriculture. The government has certain rights in this invention. The inventions described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by, or for the U.S. Government, for U.S. Government purposes. This invention was made with government support under the National Institutes of Health Grant CA162470. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DP2-DK083048 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract numbers AI072661 and AI039654 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support awarded by the National Science Foundation, Grant No. 0911017. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. R01 GM058160 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. DK72517, HL73856, DK35124, DK86125, EB00415, and EY13574 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. R01CA127306, R01CA127306-03S1, 1P01CA095471-10, AND 5P50CA150964, awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The United States government may have certain rights to the invention. This invention was made with government support under Award No. W81XWH-12-1-0159/BC112431 awarded by the Department of Defense; Grant No. 3R00CA134749-03 awarded by the National Institutes of Health; Grant No. 1R21EB018014-01A1 awarded by the National Institutes of Health; Grant No. CHE-1416268 awarded by the National Science Foundation; and Grant No. CHE-1416432 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 between the United States Department of Energy and Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, the Manager and Operator of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under NIH NCI R21 CA149908 and NIH/NIDDKP30-DK050306 awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HL059178 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under Grant No. U54 CA136404 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NIH DA033263 awarded by the NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made, in part, with United States Government support under award numbers R01 CA097085-10 and RO1 A172592 from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and U19 CA113341 from the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The United States Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number CA052477 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. Some of the work involved in the development described in the invention described in this patent application was partially funded by the National Science Foundation grant DMR-09-69301. This invention was made with government support under FA9550-09-1-0320, N00014-11-1-0245, and DE-FG0203ER15484 awarded by the United States Air Force, United States Navy and the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NSF-CHE #1058957 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DD-N000141110069 from the Office of Naval Research at the US Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States for all governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DMR-94-00334 from the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 awarded by U.S. Department of Energy. The invention was also supported by the Center for Advanced Solar Photophysics, an Energy Frontier Research Center funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under grants NS065933 and AR048796 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under GM044783 and GM007215 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number 0644784 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Number: HSHQDC-10-C-00019 awarded by the Department of Homeland Security. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. EEC0540879 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. MH100706, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. AR059385 and OD007123 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Number 5R43AI077147-02 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Agreement DE-AR0000006 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 2012-67013-19384 and Grant No. 2008-35318-04549 awarded by USDA NIFA and Hatch funds. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made in part with Government support under Cooperative Agreement DE-FC36-08G018080 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Government Contract No. 2RO1DK067859-07, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The work described herein was funded by the National Institutes of Health (Grant No. GM039565). This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 1308852 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Nos. CA057341, CA051497 and HL 080174 awarded by the Public Health Services/National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention This invention was made with government support under CA097944, CA022443 and CA064364 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CA161615 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 1119826 and 1122492 awarded by National Science Foundation and under DE-FG02-07ER15909 awarded by Department of Energy and under GM008283 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of Contract No. N00014-02-C-0306 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). This invention was made with government support under contract number NAS3-01138 awarded by NASA. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA8650-09-D-DO0021 awarded by the United States Air Force. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under agreement No. DE-FG02-07ER46394, awarded by the Department of Energy, and under agreement No. CMMI-0946418, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with support from the United States government under Grant No. DMR-0820484 awarded by the National Science Foundation, and Grant No. Del.-SC0000989 awarded by the Department of Energy. The United States government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. HR0011-08-C-0162, awarded by DARPA. The government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 U.S.C. (S)202) in which the Contractor has elected to retain title. This invention was made with government support under ES016115 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. These inventions were made with government support under NNC13TA45T awarded by The National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The government has certain rights in the inventions. This invention was made with government support under Award No. DE-EE0003910, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Agreement No. DAEE30-03-C-1077 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Agreement No. DAEE30-03-C-1077 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. FA-9550-14-1-0052 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with the U.S. Government support under Contract No. BES-0086709 awarded by the National Science Foundation. Thus, the U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 USC 202) in which the Contractor has elected to retain title. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. N00014-11-1-0910, awarded by the Office of Naval Research (ONR). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under N68335-13-C-0203 awarded by the Department of the Navy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention was not made by an agency of the United States Government or under a contract with an agency of the United States Government. This invention was made with Government support under contract: W911NF-12-1-0605, awarded by the U.S. Army. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract Nos. W911NF-07-D-0004 and W911NF-09-1-0422 awarded by the Army Research Office. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. EEC-0832819 awarded by the National Science Foundation, and under Grant No. DE-AC02-05CH11231, awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the support of the United States government under Contract number 200-2007-19345 Center for Disease Control. This invention was made with Government Support under Contract No. HR0011-13-C-0025 awarded by the Department of Defense, DARPA. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This work was made with Governmental support under grant number 2010-ST0-AG0001 awarded by the Department of Homeland Security Center of Excellence for Emerging and Zoonotic Animal Diseases. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NIH Grant Nos. R01GM074748, R01GM086171 and R01GM102538. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present application was made with Government support under Grant Numbers NIH R01 CA17393 awarded by the National Institutes for Health (NIH). The Government of the United States has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. DK-41526 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. EB012498 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under R01EB007829 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: HR0011-11-C-0060 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: HR0011-11-C-0060 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under EB012674 and NS058576 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The following application is an application for patent under 35 USC 111 (a). This invention was made with government support under HD074495 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention A portion of this invention was made with Government support under contract # N68335-05-C-0015 awarded by the U.S. Navy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was developed under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. The innovation described herein may be manufactured, used, imported, sold, and licensed by or for the Government of the United States of America without the payment of any royalty thereon or therefor. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in the present disclosure pursuant to Contract No. 1068050 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). This invention was made with government support under DE-AR0000543 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number ECCS-0925774 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support from the U.S. Army under contract W15P7T-06-D-R401, subcontract R401-SC-20316-0252. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Number: N00014-12-C-0671 awarded by United States Navy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under HR0011-10-3-0007 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. B599858 awarded by Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with Government support under government contract number CCF-0448501 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was developed with Government support under Contract No. DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under B554331 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was developed under Contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under HR0011-09-C-0002 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. The present disclosed subject matter was made with United States government support under Grant No. GS-35F-0874P awarded by the Department of Defense. The United States government may have certain rights in the disclosed subject matter. This invention was developed under Contract DE-AC94AL-85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made in part with government support under contract number M67854-12-C-2408, awarded by the United States Marine Corps Systems Command. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support of Grant No. EY04 1 10, awarded by the NIH. The government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number IIS-0963668 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers AG014971 and HC095178 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. N00014-90-1-0813 awarded by Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in The invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number R01EB7530 awarded by the National Institute of Health and grant numbers IIS0916235, CCF0702699 and CNS0959979 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under National Science Foundation No. NSF CMMI 0846730-NSF-KARA. The government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract N666001-11-C-4006 awarded by the Defense Advance Research Project Agency (DARPA) and Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the United States Government support under Agreement No. 70NANB1H3056 awarded by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under National Institutes of Health (NIH) Grant Number R44-DC010104, entitled, ?Innovation Speech Articulation Tools for Neuroscience Research,? commencement date Jan. 1, 2012. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-AC09-08SR22470 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The present application was made with government support under contract numbers DE-AC02-98CH 10886 and DE-SC0012704 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. This invention was made under a CRADA C-14-03 between Particle Beam Lasers, Inc. and Brookhaven National Laboratory operated for the United States Department of Energy. The United States government has certain rights in the invention(s). The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States for all governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty. This invention was developed under Contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-DE-FC26-06NT42932 awarded by the National Energy Technology Laboratory. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: University of California Subcontract No. B601996, awarded by Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number ECCS-955199 awarded by National Science Foundation (NSF). The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with Government support under contract DE-FC36-016011051 awarded by Department of Energy (DOE). The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under Contract Nos. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy and Grant R21GM077870 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under DAAB07-01-D-G602, awarded by Army Night Vision. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Advanced Technology Program Award No. 70NANB7H7056 awarded by NIST. The United States has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under Contract No. DB-AR-00000038 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention (Navy Case No. 102274) is assigned to the United States Government and is available for licensing for commercial purposes. Licensing and technical inquires may be directed to the Office of Research and Technical Applications, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, Pacific, Code 72120, San Diego, Calif. 92152; voice (619) 553-5118; email ssc_pac_T2@navy.mil. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with United States Government support under contract number H98230-13-C-0220 entered with the following United States Governmental Agency: Department of Defense. The United States government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25946 and was awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was not developed in conjunction with any Federally sponsored contract. The innovation described herein may be manufactured, used, imported, sold, and licensed by or for the Government of the United States of America without the payment of any royalty thereon or therefor. This invention was made with Government support under Contract FA8650-11-C-7190 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under U.S. Government Contract Number D12PC00285. The government may have certain rights in the invention. The invention disclosed in this application was made with Government support under the Fermi Research Alliance, LLC, Contract Number DE-AC02-07CH11359 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The innovation described herein may be manufactured, used, imported, sold, and licensed by or for the Government of the United States of America without the payment of any royalty thereon or therefor. This invention was made with Government support under grant numbers HL076398 and HL000093 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this disclosure. This work was supported in part by NIH/NIDCD grant DC04158, NIH grant R56DC012038, and NIH shared equipment grant 1S10RR028832. The United States government may have certain rights in the invention. The assignees of this United States (U.S.) patent application elect to retain the rights in this invention. The invention was made with U.S. Government support under the terms of Grant Nos. 1R41RR019159-01 and 5R42RR019159-03 awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH); and Grant No. 9731748 awarded by the National Science Foundation Research Center (NSF ERC). The U.S. Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract no. R01 AR061460-01A1 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under USAMRMC Contract No. W81XWH-12-C-0121, awarded by the Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center (TATRC). The government has certain rights to the inventions described in this application. This invention was made with government support under HL116626 and AT003961-8455 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. R01 HL108330 and R01 HL070969 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number DK065969 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described in this application was made with funds from the National Institutes of Health, Grant Numbers NS 39170, NS 40591, and NS 46239. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention was also made with funds from New York State, contract number CO19772. New York State has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. HHSN261200800001E awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The presently disclosed technology was developed with United States government support pursuant to Grant No. R01 AI113162-02, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States government may have certain rights therein. This invention was made with government support under the National Institutes of Health R01HL-081349 and P41EB-001977. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract no. 1DP2 CA174495-01 awarded by the National Institute of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers DP2 OD003137, DK59637, DK20593, and UL1RR024975-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under grant no. 1R15DE021016-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under, grant no. NS039141 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number 1R43AT006065-01 awarded by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), National Institute of Health (NIH). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support; the government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made in part with government support under NIH 1R03AI092249-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government owns rights in the present invention pursuant to grant numbers 1RO1CA74951-01 and 5RO1CA54168-05 from the National Institutes of Health. This invention was made with government support under grant no. EB005517 and AG328232 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has certain rights to the invention pursuant to Grant No. W911NF1010313 from U.S. Army Research Office, Grant No. GM-065255 from the National Institutes of Health, Grant No. DMR-0820506 from the National Science Foundation (MRSEC) to the University of Massachusetts. The invention was not made under government contact nor was funded grant money used to fund the research. This invention was supported by grant no. NCC 9-58 from the National Space Biomedical Research Institute through NASA. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CTS-0134476 awarded by the National Science Foundation, under N00014-04-1-0644 and N00014-05-1-0583 awarded by the Office of Naval Research, and under R01 EB007351 awarded by National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering of the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. At least part of the present disclosure is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. EEC-0310723. At least part of the present disclosure was also made with governmental support under grant No. R24EY12893-01, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in the present invention. Described examples were made with Government support under Government Contract No. DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy to Sandia Corporation. The Government has certain rights in the invention, including a paid-up license and the right, in limited circumstances, to require the owner of any patent issuing in this invention to license others on reasonable terms. This invention was made with government support under 1K99HL114719-01A1 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CMM10700537 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under contract number W911NF-14-2-0011 awarded by the United States Army. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number DE-FC26-05NT42643 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No.: W911NF1110061 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made partially with government support under the U.S. Air Force number FA5320-09-D-5601 & U.S. Army W91ZLK-10-D-0005 Task 0793. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made in part with Government support under Agreement Numbers NCC-1-02043 and NNL07AM07T awarded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under W31P4Q-11-1-0002 awarded by the U.S. Army/Army Materiel Command. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under 0551920 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R37 CA081064, CA120388, ES016548, CA0227501 awarded by The Hormel Foundation and National Institutes of Health and HHSN-261200533001C-NO1-CN-53301 awarded by National Cancer Institute Contract. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract NS057496 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. Portions of the work described herein were supported by Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) grant numbers 0611005, 0810785, and 0956877 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government of the United States of America may retain certain rights to this patent. This invention was made with government support under grant number AI 25096 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HL079207, HL003455 and GM067082 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant number CA127541 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under AI063326 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number GM067082 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and Grant Number 0844604 awarded by National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under AI067417 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention used in part funds from the National Science Foundation Grant No. CHE-0911690. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under National Institutes of Health award 1DP2OD007292-01 and Office of Naval Research/NESEC award N00014-10-1-0827. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. N00014-10-1-0827 awarded by U.S. Department of Defense, Office of Naval Research. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. CA089566 and CA009634 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract numbers P01 HL060678 and R01 HL071626 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Number HL108927 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was developed, in part, with support by the United States Government under agreement number W81XWH-11-C-0472 with the Department of Defense (DOD). The United States Government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers AI46283 and AI50452 awarded by U.S. Public Health Service. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract CA086017 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grants GM058556, AG017870, and AG022082 awarded by NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 between the United States Department of Energy and the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, the Manager and Operator of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. 2R44GM073401 awarded by National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract HHSN261200800001E awarded by the National Cancer Institute and the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under National Science Foundation Grants 1046844 and 1315023, Department of Energy Grant DE-FG02-07ER84788, Maine Technology Institute Grants SG1537, SG1793, SG3446, DA708 and DA1613 and two Department of Transportation Sun Grant Initiative Awards. The government has certain rights in the invention. This work was funded in part by the National Institutes of Health under Grant Number 1-R01-GM085323-01A1. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under DE-FG02-91ER20021 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract numbers 2007-35304-18323 awarded by the United States Department of Agriculture; and IOS-0618286 and IOS-1238051 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The presently disclosed subject matter was made with U.S. Government support under Grant No. 2R56DK058702-06A1 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. Thus, the U.S. Government has certain rights in the presently disclosed subject matter. This invention was made with government support under XFT-8-88522-01 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number BES-0529048 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Nos. CA82422, R01CA 124518 and R01CA 83867 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R01AI076247 and R01AI090831 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under DMR-0602684 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made partly using funds from the National Human Genome Research Institute grant numbers HG003703-01 and HG004035-01, and from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences grant number GM073617-01A1. The U.S. Federal Government has certain rights to the invention. This invention was made with government support under DE-FC26-04NT42273 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was supported in part by funds from the U.S. government (NSOF ECCS Grant No. 1325367). The U.S. government may therefore have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made under Contract Number HDTRA1-07-1-0007 between Kansas State Board of Regents and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency of the U.S. Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. Development of this invention was supported in part by the United States Department of Energy, Advanced Turbine Development Program, Contract No. DE-FC26-05NT42644. Accordingly, the United States Government may have certain rights in this invention This disclosure was made with Government support under FA8650-09-D-2923 awarded by The United States Air Force. The Government has certain rights in this disclosure. This invention was made with government support under contract number W911W6-08-2-0001 awarded by the United States Army. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention was made using U.S. Government funding under U.S. Government contract no. FA8650-07-C-2803. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in the present invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under W911NF-11-1-0094 and W911NF-09-1-0476 awarded by U.S. Department of Defense, and under PHY-0646094 and DMR-0820484 awarded by National Science Foundation, and under DE-FG02-00ER45852 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The United States government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with Government support under National Science Foundation grant ECCS-1102397, and Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency grant N66001-1-4003. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with US government support under contract N00019-06-C-0081 awarded by the Department of the Navy-Naval Air Systems Command. The US government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to the employer-employee relationship of the Government to the inventors as U.S. Department of Energy employees and site-support contractors at the National Energy Technology Laboratory. This disclosure was made with government support under contract No. NNC13TA45T awarded by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The government has certain rights in the disclosure. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, sold, imported, and/or licensed by or for the Government of the United States of America. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: DEEE0002897 awarded by Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The present disclosure was made with U.S. Government support under grant numbers R01EB002715 and R01 EB012466 from the National Institute of Health. Thus, the Government has certain rights to the disclosure described and claimed herein. This invention was made with Government support under contract no. DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U. S. Department of Energy to Sandia Corporation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R01NS052637 and R01GM085485, awarded by the National Institutes of Health, and CHE-0924320, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under an SBIR Grant from the Department of Homeland Security, No. N10PC2010S. The government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under contract DE-AR0000405 ARPAE-METALS-PARSE, beginning on Feb. 3, 2014 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. AG023583, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under HG003703 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under RR031246 and EB009459 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with governmental support under grant number CA130940 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and grant number MH090878 from the National Institute of Mental Health. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under the National Science Foundation grant no. CBET-1050176 and DMR-1121107. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. Research in this application was supported in part by grants from the National Institutes of Health (NIH Grant Nos. R21/R33-CA100740 and 1R01CA160541). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. GM 62159 from the National Institutes of Health and support under Grant DE-FG0300ER45812 from the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number EEC-0634279 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under HR0011-09-C-0002 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant No. 1S10RR028898 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract EB009690 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The embodiments described herein may be manufactured, used, and/or licensed by or for the United States Government without the payment of royalties thereon. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This disclosure was developed in part with an Air Force SBIR funding under contract FA8650-10-M-2032. The Government's rights to use, modify, reproduce, release, perform, display, or disclose any technical data or computer software contained in this report are restricted by paragraph (b)(4) of the Rights in Noncommercial Technical Data and Computer Software (Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Program clause contained in the above-identified contract (DFARS 252.227-7018 (June 1995)). No restrictions apply after the date shown above. The US Government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. FA9550-14-1-0052 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: HR0011-13-C-0022 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. Portions of this invention were made with U.S. Government support under contract/instrument Department of Energy SBIR DE-SC0004400 and DE-SC0006343. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. The present disclosure was developed, at least in part, using Government support under Contract No. 1 R21 HG003714-01 awarded by the NHGRI of National Institutes of Health. Therefore, the Federal Government may have certain rights in the present disclosure. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. W9113M10C0093 awarded by Missile Defense Agency. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under HR0011-09-C-0002 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: W911NF-11-C-0200 (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with partial government support under the National Science Foundation (NSF) grant number IIS1116583 and the Federal Highway Administration Award DTFH61-14-C-00001. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under H98230-07-C-0365 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. R21 EB013764 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number DE-AR0000217 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made with Governmental support under contract number DE-FC36-07GO17043 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The Government may have certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract NNN12AA01C, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 USC 202) in which the Contractor has elected to retain title. This invention was made with Government support under contract no. DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U. S. Department of Energy to Sandia Corporation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made at least in part using government support under contract nos. ECCS-1128439 and DMR-0819762, both awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract no. DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U. S. Department of Energy to Sandia Corporation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NSF/MRSEC; DMR-1104495 awarded by The National Science Foundation; and under FG02-04ER46109 awarded by The Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. FA95550-10-1-0456 awarded by the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CSR-1117261 awarded by National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in this matter. This invention was made with government support under CNS-1116864 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. EEC1160483, awarded by the National Science Foundation and under Contract No. HR0011-13-3-0002, awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under ARPA-E Cooperative Agreement DE-AR0000141 awarded by the Department of Energy (DOE). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: FA8650-090-C-7924 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number 1353180 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under ?National Institute of Health (NIH) Small Business Technology Transfer Grant (STTR),? Program Award Number 1R41ES023250-01 awarded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). The government has certain rights in the invention. The Government of the United States of America has rights in this invention pursuant to Government Contract No. 14-C-0077. At least some of the subject matter of this application was made with the support of contract no. NBCHC030118 from the U.S. Department of Defense. The government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of contract no. NBCHC030118 awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense. This invention was made with government support under FA9550-10-1-0166 awarded by the Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NSF CNS-0959053 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. FA8721-05-C-0002 awarded by the U.S. Air Force and under Grant No. W911NF-08-2-0004 awarded by the Army Research Laboratory. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CCF 1017823, 1017775, and 1434600 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract FA9300-13-C-2014 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The Government has certain rights in the invention. Distribution A: Approved for Public Release; Distribution Unlimited. PA#17180. This invention was made with government support under the grant R43HL114277 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Numbers IIP0712462 and IIP0924037 awarded by the National Science Foundation and Grant Number 70NANB7H7046 awarded by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract CA125467 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made in part with government support under grant numbers NIH CA021765 and NIH NS066460 awarded by the National Institute of Health (NIH). The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under grant number AG026661 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. R01CA127306, R01CA127306-0351, 1P01CA95471-10, AND 5P50CA150964 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. HL077910, awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support awarded by the Department of Defense and the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. W911NF-14-1-0279, awarded by U.S. Army/ARO. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under P30 DK063720 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 5R01CA113796 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and the National Cancer Institute. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under DK071003 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under R01CA133114 and R01CA100045 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. CA16056 and grant no. CA105500 awarded by the National Cancer Institute and the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Al020148 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. W81XWH-04-2-0031, W81XWH-07-1-0211, and W81XWH-08-2-0034 awarded by the Department of Defense, and Grant No. DMR-0847711 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The United States Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Agreement Nos, AI51507 awarded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, R33 CA118631, R01 GM065835, and AI041927 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. U54CA119341 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grants R01CA133722, U01CA151810 and U54 CA119338 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R01 GM093229 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under W81XWH-09-2-0139 awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract ECCS-0901849 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant No. R24EY12893-01, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract and by an employee of the United States Government and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 U.S.C. (S)202) and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. In accordance with 35 U.S.C. (S)202, the contractor elected not to retain title. This invention was made with government support under DK 50539 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. 0830093, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention was made by an employee of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. The invention was made with government support under grant number FA95500410363 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. W58RGZ-04-G-0023 awarded by the United States Army. The Government of the United States may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DTFR5314C00021 awarded by GOVT. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. N00019-06-C-0081 with the Department of the Navy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under FA9550-08-1-0221 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, DE-SC0001059 awarded by the Department of Energy, and CHE0911145, DMR0520513, and DMR1006391 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract DE-AC0576RL01830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under Grant numbers R01 CA128865 and R01 CA161931 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under grant number HHSN-271-2008-00025-C awarded by the National Institute of Mental Health. The U.S. government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R44MH063663 MH063663 awarded by the National Institutes Institute of Mental Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made in part with U.S. Government support from the National Institutes of Health grant P50 GM067041 and the National Science Foundation HRD-0820175. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this application. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Grant Numbers R01 AG025500 and R43 AG43203 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with the support of the United States government under Contract numbers R44AI096613 by National Institutes of Health (NIH), and R43AI096679 by National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CA151652 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under N66001-12-C-4211 awarded by DARPA. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R21 CA131931 and R01 CA138264 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was supported, in part, by NIH grant number: R01-AI084840. The federal government may have certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. AI037606 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government may own certain rights in this invention pursuant to the terms of the NSF Grant No. BES-9734496. The U.S. Government owns rights in the invention pursuant to National Cancer Institute grant number 1PO1 CA71933. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. R03 HD055129 awarded by the NIH and D43 TW/HD 00654 from the Fogarty International Center. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under W81XWH-06-1-0014, awarded by the Department of Defense and R01 CA149405 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers HD038519 and GM097971 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and grant number DBI1039771 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under DE-FG02-08ER46536, DE-SC0001059 awarded by the Department of Energy, and DMR0843962 and ESI0426328 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 between the United States Department of Energy and the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, the Manager and Operator of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. This invention was developed under Grant No. DE-FG36-08GO18130 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy, and the Government of the United States of America may have certain rights in this invention pursuant to that grant. The invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant number IOS0830225 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under TW007404 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and support under DGE1256260 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This patent application was supported by grant NOS. R01 GM04290 1 and R01 AI065240 from the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant number R01-GM090320-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. R01 HL087285 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was funded, in part, by the United States government under a Department of Energy Biomass Program award # DE-FC36-07G017057. This invention was also funded, in part, by the BioEnergy Science Center (BESC) under the DOE Office of Science through award number DE-POS2-06ER64304. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under HDTRA1-10-C-0080 awarded by Defense Threat Reduction Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. HR0011-11-2-0006 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and under Grant No. HG006081 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was developed under Contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract AI061739 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. NS056302, awarded by the National Institutes of Health and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) and Grant No. 077501 4N, awarded by the American Heart Association. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under DK076893 and AI070235 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support AI054703 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. F33657-99-D-2051 awarded by the United States Air Force. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of Contract No. W56HZV-11-C-0345 issued by the U.S. Army Contracting Command. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. W91CRB-10-C-0305 awarded by the US ARMY. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was developed under Contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under 0832760 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This disclosure was made with government support under FA8650-07-C-2803 awarded by the United States Air Force. The government has certain rights in the disclosure. Development of this invention was supported in part by the United States Department of Energy, Advanced Turbine Development Program, Contract No. DE-FC26-05NT42644. Accordingly, the United States Government may have certain rights in this invention. This disclosure was made with government support under FA 8650-09-D-2923 0021 awarded by The United States Air Force. The government has certain rights in the disclosure. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. N00019-12-D-0002-4Y01, awarded by the Navy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. N00019-02-C-3003 with the United States Navy. The government therefore has certain rights in this invention. This disclosure was made with Government support under FA8650-09-D-2923-0021 awarded by The United States Air Force. The Government has certain rights in this disclosure. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. N00014-09-D-0821-0006 awarded by the United States Navy. The government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made by an employee of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with government support under N66001-10-1-4027 awarded by Navy/SPAWAR, W911NF-12-1-0253 awarded by the Army Research Office, N00014-11-1-0856 awarded by the Office of Naval Research, EECCS1054454 Awarded by the National Science Foundation, N00014-11-1-0096 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made partially under Phase I SBIR Contract No.: D11PC20141 awarded by the Department of Homeland Security. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under (FA8650-11-M-5178) awarded by the United States Air Force. The Government has certain rights in this invention This invention was made with government support under Grant No. R21 GM107893 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 2012-67009-19713 awarded by USDA/NIFA. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number HR0011-12-2-2004 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant #FA9550-14-1-0144 awarded by Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under A7117-300-01-12-CA1510 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in this invention. The research that led to the development of the present invention was sponsored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) Chemical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory. NOAA is a part of the U.S. Department of Commerce, a component of the U.S. Federal government. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CA119997 awarded by the National Institute of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The invention was made with government support under Contract No. R01 CA083838 awarded by NIH/NCI. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. AR052873, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The subject invention was made with government support under a research project supported by National Institute of Justice under Grant No. 2013-DN-BX-K032. The government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made by an employee of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. The innovation described herein may be manufactured, used, imported, sold, and licensed by or for the Government of the United States of America without the payment of any royalty thereon or therefor. This invention was made with Government support and the Government may have certain rights in the invention as provided for by grant number 1040015 awarded by the National Science Foundation. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. 1102246 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant number DMR-1053293 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government has certain rights to this in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. HR00011-10-C-0025. The Government may have certain rights with regard to the invention. This invention was made with government support under IIS-0413204 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has ownership rights in this invention. Licensing and technical inquiries may be directed to the Office of Research and Technical Applications, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, Pacific, Code 72120, San Diego, Calif., 92152; voice (619) 553-5118; ssc_pac_t2@navy.mil. Reference Navy Case Number 102709. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: HR0011-13-C-0022 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Cooperative Agreement Number 70NANB14H289 awarded by the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. Certain aspects of this invention were made with government support under Grant/Contract No. FA8650-07-C-5210 awarded by the United States Air Force/Air Force Material Command DET 1 Air Force Research Laboratory/PKMM. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with U.S. government support, National Science Foundation CBET 0853157. The U.S. government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the US Department of Energy (DOE)/Sandia National Labs. The government has certain rights in the invention. Embodiments of the present invention were made with U.S. Government support under North Dakota State University Subcontract SPP002-5, Defense Microelectronics Activity (DMEA) Contract No. H94003-06-1-0601 (prime). Certain embodiments, including light insensitive circuit structures and transistor based voltage multipliers and demodulators described herein, were made with U.S. Government support under Defense Microelectronics Activity (DMEA) Contract No. H94003-06-1-0612. The U.S. Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under the NSF Number IIS-1115313. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: W911NF-11-C-0200 (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)). The Government has certain rights in this invention. Portions of this invention may have been made with Government support under contracts DMS-0968309 and BCS-0527388 awarded by National Science Foundation (NSF) and under contracts ARO MURI 50363-MA-MUR, 58344-MA and AFOSR FA9550-10-1-0569 awarded by the Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative (MURI). The Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. 0937060 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made in part with government support under contract number HR0011-12-C-0016 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy and under Grant CHE-1306720 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under CRAD Project DHS Contract HSHQDC-09-C-00057 awarded by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DMR0820404 awarded by the National Science Foundation and under Contract No. W911NF-11-1-0362, awarded by the U.S. Army/ARO. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers DMR0803149, DMR1105986, and EPS-0903806 awarded by the National Science Foundation and under W911NF-09-1-0295 awarded by ARO. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under Grant Number N00014-10-1-0989 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The invention was made with government support under Grant Number N00244-09-1-0067 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of SBIR Phase II Grant No. IIP-0956746 awarded by the National Science Foundation. This invention was made with Federal government support under Contract No. W911 NF-10-2-0023 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made using U. S. Government support under USAF AFOSR Grant No. FA9550-06-1-0076 and DOE Grant No. DE-FG02-07ER46465. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government. This invention was made with government support under DE-AR 0000378 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract/grant number W911NF-07-1-0452, awarded by the Army Research Office. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Prime Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under W91CRB-10-1-007 awarded by DARPA/Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract no. DE-AR0000261 awarded by the DOE, Office of ARPA-E. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has ownership rights in this invention. Licensing and technical inquiries may be directed to the Office of Research and Technical Applications, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, Pacific, Code 72120, San Diego, Calif., 92152; voice (619) 553-5118; ssc_pac_t2@navy.mil. Reference Navy Case Number 102936. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. FA8650-09-C-7924 (awarded by the Advanced Research Development Agency). The Government has certain rights in this invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of contract number N00173-10-C-2010 awarded by the U.S. Navy, Naval Research Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. HR0011-12-2-0007 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and under Contract No. W911NF-12-1-0210 awarded by the Army Research Office. The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of HQ0147-09-C-7103 and HQ0006-10-C-7245 awarded by the Missile Defense Agency. This invention was made in part with Government support under contract no. W31P4Q10C0034 awarded by US Army Aviation and Missile Command. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number W31P4Q-13-C-0095 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. FA8750-14-C-0099 awarded by the Air Force Research Laboratory on behalf of DARPA. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government funds under Agreement No. HR0011-13-3-0002 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The U.S. Government has rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract Numbers: FA8750-12-C-0265 awarded by Department of Homeland Security. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract 0085864 awarded by National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States for all governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty. This invention was made with support from the United States Government, specifically the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, and; accordingly, the United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under EB015094-01A1 awarded by NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. This technology was developed in part with sponsorship by National Science Foundation Grant Nos. 0823015 and 0848626 and the U.S. federal government has certain rights to this technology. This invention was made, at least in part, with U.S. government support under grant No. R01-EB011516 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The U.S. government may have certain rights in this invention. The invention recited in the claims was made with government support under Grant Number DA027304 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CA067771 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number NS059690, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the support of the United States government under SBIR Grant number 1R44DA037900 by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), one of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The presently disclosed subject matter was made with U.S. Government support under Grant No. R43 AI084284 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. Thus, the U.S. Government has certain rights in the presently disclosed subject matter. The invention was made with government support under Grant No. R01 CA154754 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Numbers AG017042, AG037495, and HL092868 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number HL073646 and HL112303 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. HL085833, AA015752, HL088364, HL089310, and 1KO8DK090146 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA135110, CA106802, AI054375 and CA109465, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. Government therefore has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. DK062434, DK057978, DK090962, DK063491 and HL105278 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under NIH-SBIR Grant 5-R44NSO48734-03 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract W81WH-12-1-0439 from the U.S. Army Medical Research Acquisition Activity (USAMRAA). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under National Institutes of Health Grant No. EB005669-02. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number GM053386 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with governmental support under grant no. W81XWH-05-1-0183 awarded by the US Army Department of Defense, and grant no. NIBIB-K08 EB008122 awarded by the NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. EB002520 awarded by the Tissue Engineering Resource Center (TERC) through the National Institutes of Health from the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. EEC-0812348 awarded by the National Science Foundation Engineering Research Center. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under W911NF-06-1-0218 awarded by the Army/ARO and N66001-11-C-4190 awarded by the Navy/SPAWAR. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Number R43NS062530 awarded by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) of the National Institute of Health (NIH) and Contract No. W31P4Q-09-C-0117 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Number DE-FE0013363 between Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. and the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. DMR-awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. OD003584 and Grant No. EB012946 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and under Grant No. HR0011-11-2-0006 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under FHWA-RD-03-074 awarded by the Federal Highway R&D Labs. The government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. IIS-1427050 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DGE-0802267awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made using U.S. government funding through the U.S. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases contract No. 1R43AR063535-01. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number W911-QY-09-C-0058 awarded by the U.S. Army. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under Contract No. W911NF-11-1-0096, awarded by the Army Research Office, and under Contract No. HR0011-12-1-0003, awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. N66001-05-C-6014 awarded by the United States Navy. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DEEE0005447 awarded by DOE. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DEEE0005447 awarded by DOE. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support by the NIFA Small Business Innovation Research program of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, grant numbers 2005-33610-15483 and 2006-33610-17595. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has ownership rights in this invention. Licensing inquiries may be directed to Office of Research and Technical Applications, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, Pacific, Code 72120, San Diego, Calif., 92152; telephone (619) 553-5118; email: ssc_pac_t2@navy.mil, referencing NC 103290. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. FA8721-05-C-0002 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-AC09-085R22470, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under contracts NNX14CK06P and NNX15CK09P awarded by NASA. The Government therefore has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States Government support from the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was funded by Grant Nos. CA 102412 and CA111723 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This disclosure was made with government support under grant numbers IIA-1330840 and IIA-1330842 by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the disclosure. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DE-SC0001004/T-108118 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R01-NS049442 awarded by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), and under AG034248 awarded by the National Institute of Aging (NIA). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R43 NS057849 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and W81XWH-10-1-0356 awarded by the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number GM080585 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under AR044276 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under N00014-11-1-0317, awarded by the Office of Naval Research; CBET-1435912, awarded by the National Science Foundation; and DE-FG02-07ER46467, awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CHE1212767 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number 2008-38928-19308 awarded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grants AI072766, AI104660 and GM041376 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under AG033493 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number CA88805-01A2 and R01CA126897 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant nos. CA 140295 and CA 150301, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under National Science Foundation-MRSEC grant number DMR# 0520567, and under National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research grant numbers DE13045 and DE15109. The government has certain rights in the invention This invention was made with Government support under Small Business Innovation Research contract R43 GM090626-01. The Government has certain rights in this invention. Research leading to various aspects of embodiments presented herein were sponsored, at least in part, by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. CHE-0809562 and the Army Research Office under Grant No. W911NF-10-1-0476. The United States Government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number CHE-1230609, awarded by the National Science Foundation, and Grant Number DE-EEO005993, awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number 2011-ne-bx-k550 awarded by the National Institutes of Justice. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA083636 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The work described herein was supported, at least in part, by The National Science Foundation under contract nos. EEC0813570 and IIP1237247. Therefore, the Government of the United States of America has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers NS038194 and TR000888 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The United States government may have certain rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. N00014-01-1 awarded by the Department of Defense, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Office of Naval Research. This invention was made with government support under grant no. U01 CA84118, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under ES023569 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HG000225 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and 0425880 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Small Business Innovation Research grant 1R43CA159743-01A1 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The US government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under EY013169 and CA125970 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R01GM089784 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government Support under Agreement CA110499 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, and under Agreement DAMD17-02-2-0051 awarded by the US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number DP14AP00041 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made in part with United States Government support under 151866, 151628, 5U01CA13-8, and K01CA164092 awarded by the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States government support from the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government claims certain rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38 between the United States Government and the University of Chicago and/or pursuant to DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government and UChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under grants R21 CA160080 and R01 HG006768 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number 8P20GM103447 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant/Contract No. NSF CMMI-1344222 awarded by NSF, Grant/Contract No. NNX14AG47A awarded by NASA, and NNX14AM40H awarded by NASA. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA8650-09-D-2923-0021 awarded by the United States Air Force. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in this invention pursuant to contract number W911W6-07-2-0002 awarded by the Department of the Army. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA8650-09-D-2923-0021, awarded by United States Air Force. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. NRO000-09-C-0135 National Reconnaissance Organization (NRO). The government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was partly funded by the Government of the United States of America under Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FC26-99FT40262 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy and the Government of the United States of America has certain rights in the invention. Development for this invention was supported in part by Contract No. DE-FE0023955, awarded by the United States Department of Energy. Accordingly, the United States Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Award No. DE-EE0003910, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Federal Government Contract No. N66001-12-C-4035. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. N00014-13-1-0509 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with support under DE-SC0009615 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No FA8650-12-M-5144. The Government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HR0011-12-2-0003 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, and support under W911NF-07-1-0330 awarded by the U.S. Army Research Office and the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. CBET0846505 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under AG024547, RR018942 and GM090797 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention (Navy Case No. 103,249) is assigned to the United States Government and is available for licensing for commercial purposes. Licensing and technical inquiries may be directed to the Office of Research and Technical Applications, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, Pacific, Code 72120, San Diego, Calif., 92152; voice (619) 553-2778; email T2@spawar.navy.mil. This invention was made with government support by grants HG004378 and R21 HG004770, awarded by the National Institute of Health, by grant HG004378 awarded by the Sequencing Technology Program of the National Human Genome Research Institute, and by grant U54CA 143682 awarded by the National Cancer Institute. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. CA090571, CA107300, and GM074509, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support with a grant from the National Institutes of Health (RC1-ES018361). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number W81XWH-10-2-0130 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. RO1CA69480 and UO1CA68400 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant numbers R21CA147831 and R01NS062725, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant HD051714 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under Grant NS39091 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. and Grant NS 40182 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and Grants DAMD 17-99-1-9565 and DAMD 17-01-1-0765 awarded by the United States Army. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. W911NF-11-2-0032, awarded by the U.S. Army. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under W911NF-05-1-0403, awarded by the U.S. Army Research Office. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was developed under Contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under contract number ECCS1348269, awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contracts RR025742 and TW008781 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract GM085437 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number DMR-0606415. This invention was made with government support under Grant Numbers IIP1449747 and IIS1111568 awarded by The National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under Agreement No. HR0011-07-9-0002 awarded by DARPA. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: DE-EE0002894 awarded by the Department of Energy (DOE). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number H98230-11-3-0011 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: HR0011-13-C-0022, awarded by DARPA. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers IIS0941581 and IIS0964075 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement between EMC Corporation and Los Alamos National Security, LLC. The United States government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 between the United States Department of Energy and Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the operation of Los Alamos National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under CCF-0952733 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grants CCF-1110290 and CCF-1061164 awarded by the NSF. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under award no. 60NANB10D213 awarded by the National Institute of Standards, the National Science Foundation CAREER Grant #CNS-1250718, the National Institute of Standards and Technology Grants #60NANB10D213 and #60NANB12D234, and the National Science Foundation GRFP Grant #DGE-1144466. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: H98230-11-C-0276 awarded by the Department of Defense (DoD). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under the terms of contract number TCS0994 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention (Navy Case No. 98,581) was developed with funds from the United States Department of the Navy. Licensing inquiries may be directed to Office of Research and Technical Applications, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, San Diego, Code 2112, San Diego, Calif., 92152; telephone (619) 553-2778; email: T2@spawar.navy.mil. This invention was made with government support under 1111415 from the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the Government support under Grant Nos. R01HL079110 and RT32HL007284, awarded by National Institute of Health (NIH). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Number NSF-DMR-0706322 entitled ?Spin Transfer in Magnetic Nanostructures? and NSF-PHY-0601179 entitled ?Noise-Induced Escape in Multistable Systems? awarded by the National Science Foundation, and Contract Number ARO-W911NF-07-1-0643 entitled ?Electronics: Ultra-Fast Magnetoelectronic Devices? awarded by the Army Research Office. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made under Contract Number W911NF-14-C-01115. Therefore, the U.S. Government has rights to the invention as specified in that contract. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number CNS-1441757 awarded by the National Science Foundation and with industry sponsorship under Grant No. SRC #2442 awarded by the Semiconductor Research Corporation. The U.S. government and the Semiconductor Research Corporation each has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with Government support under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy and Grant GM103493 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government funds under contract number 11-D-5309 awarded by the Department of Defense. The U.S. Government may have rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Government Contract Number FA8650-14-C-7402 awarded by USAF/AFMC. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA8721-05-C-0002 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. DMR1004147 awarded by the National Science Foundation and under Grant No. N000141210959 awarded by the Office of Naval Research and under Contract No. W911NF13D0001 awarded by the Army Research Office. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. HR0011-13-3-0002 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grants FA9550-13-1-0027 and FA9550-10-1-0439 awarded by AFOSR. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract DE-EE0006709 awarded by the Department of Energy (DOE), and under contract HDTRA1-14-1-0030 awarded by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number DE-AR0000102 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the United States Government support under Contract DE-NT003894 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under DE-AC05-76RL01830 awarded by the US Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Agreement No. HR0011-08-9-0001 awarded by DARPA. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under Agreement No. HR0011-08-9-0001 awarded by DARPA. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number N00024-03-D-6606 awarded by the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number CCF 1350451 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Award No. 1035771 awarded by the National Science Foundation and by the NSF NERC ASSIST Center (EEC-1160483). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under agreement No. DE-FG02-07ER46394, awarded by the Department of Energy, and under agreement No. CMMI-0946418, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under 1519745 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. HR0011-13-3-0002 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract Nos. NNN12AA01C and NNX13AM69H awarded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number 0424422 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States for all governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty. This invention was made with Government support under Contract Number W911NF-06-3-0001 awarded by the United States Army. The Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under Contract No. HROO11-05-C-0064 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number 2R44EY015585 awarded by National Institutes of Health, National Eye Institute. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support of Grant No. 1R01 EB 007969-01, awarded by the Department of Health and Human Services, NIH; and Grant No. EEC-9731478, awarded by the NSF. The U.S. Government has certain-rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant number W81XWH1110833 POC awarded by the U.S. Army. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under federal grant number W81XWH-06-01-00400 awarded by the United States Army. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under EB002030 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract RR025742 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 74002 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) and Grant No. NS47603 from the National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract CA157877 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No: P01 3MH64570 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number PO1 HL 057346 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grants NS13515 and NS05974 from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Veterns Affairs, and the Federal Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States government support awarded by the National Institutes of Health grant numbers AI56363 and AI057157. The United States may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number DP2 OD002230 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. CA114246 and AR054940 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under grant no. U54AI57168 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. AG031171 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA113861 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant numbers R01 AI 071145-01 and 1 P41 RR018502-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 2001-35204-10184 awarded by the USDA/NIFA. The government has certain rights in the invention. The work described herein was carried out, at least in part, using funds from the United States government under contract number HHSN266200600012C from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases/National Institutes of Health/Department of Health and Human Services (NIAID/NIH/DHHS) and contract number HDTRA-1-07-C-0082, from the Department of Defense and Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DOD/DTRA). The government may therefore have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number 1133795 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant number W81XWH-10-1-0966 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number W81XWH-07-1-0498 awarded by the Department of Defense (Army/MRMC), and Grant Numbers CA125280, CA133890, and GM073857 by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. HL70051 awarded by the National Institute of Health: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Number HL067322 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made, at least in part, with U.S. government support under U.S. Department of Energy Grant DE-SC0004453 and by ARPA-E under ARPA-E Contract Nos. DE-AR-0000345 and DE-AR0000684. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC04-94AL85000 between the United States Department of Energy and Sandia Corporation, for the operation of the Sandia National Laboratories. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Number W81XWH-10-1-0519, awarded by the U.S. Army, Medical Research and Materiel Command and Grant Number N66001-11-1-4125, awarded by the U.S. Navy, Office of Navy Research. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. 5R01HG003703 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number DE-EE-0002217 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support of Grant No. 1R01 EB 007969-01, awarded by the Department of Health and Human Services, the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and with Government support of Grant No. EEC-9731478, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to contract no. DE-AC05-00OR22725 between the United States Department of Energy and UT-Battelle, LLC. The invention described herein was made in part by employees of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This disclosure was made with Government support under Contract Number NAS15-10000 awarded by NASA. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under GM070757 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This work was supported by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency/US Army Research Office grant W911NF-04-1-0174, the Texas Advanced Technology Program grant 009741-0130-2003, and the Robert A. Welch Foundation. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CMMI-1125674 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CBET0506951 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DE-SC0006847 awarded by the Department of Energy and Grant No. CBET-1433101 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made in part with government support under grant number CHE 1213019 awarded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF). The government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Number DE-AC07-051D14517 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number CHE1058835 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CHE-0924620 and DGE-0824162 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with support from the U.S. government under a grant from the U.S. National Institute of Health, gran number 1R43AG037337-01. The U.S. government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under grant number CHE-1413862, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States government support under Grant Number 1R43HL102946-01 and 2R44HL102946-02 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. NIDDK Phase II SBIR DK084658-03 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made in part with U.S. Government support from the National Institutes of Health grant P50 GM067041 and the National Science Foundation HRD-0820175. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this application. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers K08CA128972, CA174793 and CA045508 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under Heath Grant No. CA138544 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers HL094641, HL092158, and ES015330 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. 5R37DK058044 and 2RO1DK054937 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under contract HD 0 47606 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grants TR000448 and CA150945 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under R01 GM041712, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Prime Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under. DE-EE0003046 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract DE-ACO2-05CH11231 awarded by the Department of Energy, under contract CA31841 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, and under contract CA31845 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grants Nos. 0534836, 0533949, 1237252, 1142101, and 1048911, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. DE020761, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract HDTRA1-06-C-0039 awarded by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, and under contract HL114769 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Cooperative Agreement DE-FC36-08GO18080 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. EEC-0425626 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made in part during work supported by NIH grant R44AI056611 (BHJ) and 1R43AI074256 (BHJ) from the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. RO1-GM-090278 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the support of the U.S. Government under Grant No: AG09464 awarded by the National Institute on Aging, MH074866 awarded by the National Institute of Mental Health, DA10044 and 5F32DA021487 awarded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, 5UL1RR024143 awarded by the National Institutes of Health/National Center for Research Resources, and NS34696 awarded by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. The U.S. Government may have certain rights to the subject matter provided herein. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy and Grant No. 2010-0195 awarded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under GM046451 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government Support under grant R01GM49734 awarded by the National Institute of General Medical Sciences and U54AI-065357 awarded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. EY011123 and EY008571 awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. DE-SC0006469 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. The present invention was made with support from the United States Government under Grant number NAS7-1407 awarded by NASA. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under SBIR Grant No. 5R43AI4960602 awarded by the National Institutes of Health/NIAID. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract Nos. DAAB07-03-D-B011 and DAAB07-03-D-B012 awarded by the United States Army. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made under a NFE-10-02991 between The Dow Chemical Company and UT-Batelle, LLC, operating and management Contractor for the Oak Ridge National Laboratory operated for the United States Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of Contract Number N00019-02-C-3003 awarded by United States Navy. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DE-EE0002858 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States government support under U.S. Navy SBIR Award No. N68936-11-C-0017. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Air Force Research Lab Contract No. FA8650-09-D-2929 DO 0021 awarded by the United States Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 U.S.C. (S)202) in which the Contractor has elected to retain title. This invention was made with U.S. Government Support under HQ0147-12-C-7810 awarded by the U.S. Missile Defense Agency. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 0925417 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. W911S6-10-C-0011 awarded by the U.S. Army. This invention was also made with Government support under Contract No. D11PC20126 awarded by the U.S. Department of the Interior, NBC Acquisition Services Directorate. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number F29601-97-C-0001 by the United States Air Force. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government and UChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under contract number 1444327 awarded by the National Science Foundation and under contract number 110483 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support by the U.S. Department of Energy through the Office of the Governor of Texas (contract DE-FG04-90AL65847) and the National Energy Technology Laboratory (contract DE FG26-05NT42590) through the Southeast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support for research from the National Institutes of Health and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology. The Government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under AI070107 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government Support under Grant No: RO1 AI44432 and Grant No. KO8 HL089150 awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This application was made with U.S. government support (NIH-NIAID, grant number 1R44 AI07092). Therefore, the government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under EB009550, RR024986 and CA125297 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and DMR0455330 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 5R01 DC03160, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This work was supported in part by Roadmap Grant No. R33 DK070314 and SBIR Grant No. R43 DK073535 from the National Institute of Health. Consequently, the U.S. government may have certain rights to this invention. This invention is based upon work supported by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA), via Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) contract number FA8650-11-C-7105. The ideas and conclusions contained herein are those of the inventors and should not be interpreted as necessarily having the official endorsements, either expressed or implied, of ODNI, IARPA, AFRL, or the U.S. Government. Statement under MPEP 310. The U.S. government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of 03111BF0-XR, awarded by the Air Force ESC/NORAD-NORTHCOM. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. H90011-08-C-0102 (NOBS) (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)). The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, imported, sold, and licensed by or for the United States Government without the payment of royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made in part with Government support under SBIR Phase II Grant No. 1230454 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NSF #1059265 project awarded by U.S. National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described was made in the performance of official duties by one or more employees of the Department of the Navy, and thus, the invention herein may be manufactured, used or licensed by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with Government support under Grant and/or Contract No. ?N00014-02-1-0132 and/or N00014-04-1-0569 and/or N00014-08-C-0206? awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. HR0011-12-2-0006 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract No.: HR0011-08-C-0110 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. [0000.2] This invention was made with Government support under N66001-09-1-2029, awarded by the U.S. Navy, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention pursuant to a sub-contract under Contract No. N66001-11-C-4006, Modification P00001 between the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command (SPAWAR Systems Center Pacific), part of the United States Department of the Defense (Navy). This invention was made with government support under Grant No. FA8750-11-2-0274, awarded by the United States Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grants CCF-1110290 and CCF-1061164 awarded by the NSF. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under agreement N10PC20210 awarded by the Department of Homeland Security. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under HR0011-09-C-0002 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under Contract No. N00014-07-C-0292 awarded by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) US Navy. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This invention was made with Government support awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under Grant No. CCF-1016861/An Integrated Framework for Distributed Source Coding and Dispersive Information Routing and Grant No. CCF-1320599/The Common Information Framework and Optimal Coding for Layered Storage and Transmission of Audio Signals. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Nos. DMR #0654118 and DMR #1157490 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CMMI-0927786 (G100922) awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with support from the Institute for Therapeutic Discovery and government support under Grant No. CDMRP-OC060322, awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under DARPA Agreement No. H98230-13-D-0122. THE GOVERNMENT HAS CERTAIN RIGHTS IN THIS INVENTION. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: W911NF-10-1-0324 awarded by the U.S. Army. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-EE0004736 awarded by the Department of Energy. The United States government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract no. W911NF-10-2-0023 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. N00014-11-1-0244, awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of official duties by employees of the Department of the Navy and may be manufactured, used, licensed by or for the Government for any governmental purpose without payment of any royalties thereon. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA-8201-04-C-0092 awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract DE-AC0576RL01830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. FA8650-09-C-7924 (awarded by the Advanced Research Development Agency). The Government has certain rights in this invention. The present application relates to an invention that was made with support of the United States government under contract no. W911NF-10-1-0103 awarded by the U.S. Army Research Office and under contract no. HR0011-12-C-0006 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. The U.S. government has certain rights in an invention related to the present application. This invention was made with Government support under DE-EE0003911 awarded by the Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The conditions under which this disclosure was made are such as to entitle the Government of the United States under paragraph 1(a) of Executive Order 10096, as represented by the Secretary of the Air Force, to the entire right, title and interest therein, including foreign rights. This invention was made with government support under Grant #R51249 awarded by the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Grant #R51255 awarded by the United States Air Force Asian Office of Aerospace Research and Development (AOARD), and the 2015 Air Force Summer Faculty Fellowship. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Award No. W911NF-07-1-0668 awarded by the Army Research Office. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made by an employee of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for Government purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. The present invention relates to establishing secure communications between two computing devices. This invention was made with government support under CNS-0831919 and CNS-1054738 awarded by the National Science Foundation-Division of Computer & Network Systems. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under Grant Number CNS-1126478 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The invention was made with government support under Grant Number CNS-1012831 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DE-FG36-08GO18135 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under the contract number (USDA/ARS) 58-1940-8-868 awarded by THE Department of Agriculture. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number HL-064368 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. TR000004 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This presently disclosed subject matter was made with U.S. Government support under Grant No. 1R01CA100559 awarded by NIH. Thus, the U.S. Government has certain rights in the presently disclosed subject matter. This invention was made with government support under 5U54EB007954-04, sub-contract 005213, awarded by the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering of the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention in this patent document was made with government support under contract no. N00014-08-1-1202 awarded by Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number R15A1089671-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under grant number AI1007045 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This work was supported in part by Grant No DK075070 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This work was supported by the following grant from the National Institutes of Health, Grant No: 1R15AI093158-01. This work was also supported by the following grants from the National Science Foundation, Grant Nos: OCE-1155671 and EPS-1004057. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. R01-GM087316 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant DK079806 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number CA 130911 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. EY016546 and GM101782 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant number HL088207 awarded by the National Institutes Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was supported in whole or in part by grants from The National Institutes of Health (Grant No. 1K23DK073663-01). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. R01 MH084966 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and under Grant No. W911NF-10-1-0059 awarded by the Army Research Office. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under R37 DE013033 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was produced with government support from the US Army Medical Research and Material Command, under contract number W81XWH-05-C-0135. The government may have certain rights to the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. U54 AI057157 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grants NSF-EEC9731643, BES-0546962, and NIH-U01HL80711-01. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under the following Grant Nos: U.S. Dept. of Energy Grant #DE-SC0004643; and National Institutes of Health Grant #ES014997. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DE-AC02-98CH10886, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy and under grant number R21A1084189, awarded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under W81XWH-11-1-0169 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in the invention described herein pursuant to MRSEC Program of the National Science Foundation under Award Number DMR-0820341 and the Muri W911NF-10-1-0518 and from the NASA under Grant Award NNX08AK04G. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Number CERL-W9132T awarded by the Army Corps of Engineers and CBET-1106153 awarded by the NSF. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract/Grant No. 0968736, 1135419 and 1056475, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The work leading to the present invention was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under CAREER award grant number CBET-0846489. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 1120997 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of official duties by one or more employees of the Department of the Navy, and thus, the invention herein may be manufactured, used or licensed by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with Government support under contract number W911QX-12-C-0096, awarded by the U.S. Army Contracting Command?Aberdeen Proving Ground (ACC-APG) for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. N00014-09-C-0061 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made in part by employees of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or there for. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and/or licensed by or for the United States Government. This invention was made with government support under grant no. DA031387, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made in part with Government support. The Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number GM036238 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made in part with government support under Grant No. AR41880 awarded by the National Institute of Health. Accordingly, the United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no CA140681 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was supported by contract number FA9550-10-1-0091 awarded by Air Force Office of Scientific Research and grant number CBET-1260073 awarded by the National Science Foundation Early-concept Grants for Exploratory Research. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under grant numbers CA129111 and CA154708 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government has certain rights in this invention. The invention was made with government support under grants AI025210 and AI055234 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number R01AI084102 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under AI0703431 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA979509, CA72851, and CA181572 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. 5P20GM109091-02 and 1R15CA188847-01A1 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has certain rights to the invention pursuant to Grant No. 60NANB6D6123 from National Institute of Standards and Technology, and Grant No. 99-G-035#008 from Federal Aviation Administration, to the University of Massachusetts. This invention was made with government support under 0832760 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under contract DE-EE0003916 awarded by the Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number W911NF-05-1-0339 awarded by US Army Research Office. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. IIP-1330287 (Amendment 003, Proposal No. 1458190) awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number CA 130911 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HL083439, HL085208, HL007111, and AI074363 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made in part with Government support under Cooperative Agreement DE-FC36-08GO18080 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. 5R01HL032259 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. OD003584 and Grant No. EB012946 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and under Grant No. HR0011-11-2-0006 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grants CA141457 and CA082328 awarded by NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under EB000487 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under HL107440, R01-HL118744, R00-HL098364 and R01-DK095384 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grants Nos. 0534836, 0533949, 1237252, 1142101, and 1048911, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention was collaboratively made by scientists from the University of Arkansas and the University of Pittsburgh under the above-noted joint NSF grants that were in effect on or before the date the presently claimed invention was made. The claimed invention was made as a result of activities undertaken within the scope of the joint research agreement. The term ?joint research agreement? means the joint NSF research grants awarded to the above-noted parties for the performance of experimental, developmental, or research work in the field of the claimed invention. This invention was made with government support under the NIH Pioneer Award DP1MH100706, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The research underlying this invention was supported in part with funds from National Institutes of Health grant R-02-0927 and USDA grant 200113531909848. The United States Government may have an interest in the subject matter of the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. MCB-0746796, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. GM105378 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under P01CA055819 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government without the payment of royalties thereon. This invention was made with Government support under grant CHE0910475 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention is based in part upon work supported by the National Academy of Sciences under Grant No: NCHRP-154. Development of this invention was supported in part by the United States Department of Energy, Advanced Turbine Development Program, Contract No. DE-FC26-05NT42644. Accordingly, the United States Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract no. FA8650-09-D-2923 0021 awarded by the Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Award No. DE-EE0005574, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant #DE-AC02-09CH11466 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. W911QY-12-C-0148 awarded by the Natick Contracting Division, U.S. Army Contracting Command-APG. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number W91 CRB-09-00089, awarded by the U.S. Army, W31 P4Q-10-C-0166, awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, and W31 P4Q-12-C-0043, awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Government has certain rights in the invention. At least a portion of the work leading to the disclosed inventions was made using federal support by the National Institute of Health's NIBIB (National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering) under grant #R01 EB007117. The government has certain rights in the disclosed inventions. This invention was made with government support under grant number CBET-1133222, awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made using U.S. government funding through the U.S. Department of Homeland Security contract HSHQDC-13-C-00042. The government has certain rights in this invention. The present invention was developed under the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) grant NNX11CI02P. The government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the U.S. Government for governmental purposes without payment of any royalties thereon. The United States Government has rights in this invention under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 between the United States Department of Energy and the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, the manager and operator of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under DTPH56-10-T-00 from Department of Transportation (DOT). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DE-AR0000543 awarded by the Department Of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This innovation was made with government support under a grant awarded by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) Award N00014-11-1-0721. The government has certain rights in the innovation. This invention was made with government support under Grants CHE0641353 and CBET730667 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with Government support of Grant No. DE-FG02-99ER54523, awarded by the Department of Energy; and Grant No. 1R21EB012777-01A1, awarded by the Department of Health and Human Services, The National Institutes of Health (NIH). The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DTNH22-08-H-00188 awarded by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract CA119367 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and under contract CA135109 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. RO1 AR065484 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant number R21AI090213 and R01GM094924 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was developed under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with governmental support under Grant Nos. P41 EB002035 and R01 EB000803, awarded by NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has rights in this invention pursuant to contract number NSF SBIR Phase I Award No: IIP-1230424 and Phase II Award No: IIP-1046450 with the National Science Foundation. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number 917 NSF CMMI 13-51370 CAR awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under ASOFR Grant Nos. F9550-09-1-0495 and F9550-11-1-0194 as well as DARPA Contract No. W15P7T-11-C-A901. The Government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. government has certain rights in this invention. Development of the inventions described herein was at least partially funded with government support through U.S. National Science Foundation grants DGE-0549503 and IIP-0912921, and the U.S. government has certain rights in the inventions. This invention was made with government support under CNS-0845832 and CNS-0855204 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: DE-SC0008923 (DoE-MIT), 5710003274 (MIT-IBM) awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No.: W911NF-06-3-0001 awarded by Army Research Office (ARO). The government has certain rights to this invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) contracts and by employees of the United States Government and is subject to the provisions of Section 20135(b) of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, Public Law 111-314, (S)(124 Stat. 3330, 51 U.S.C.; Chapter 201) and 35 U.S.C. (S)202, and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes without the payment opf any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. W911NF-10-1-0506, W911NF-12-1-0430, and W911NF-13-C-0037 awarded by the Army Research Office and Grant Nos. 1320644 and 1345913 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under the CyberFastTrack program documented in DARPA PA-11-53 dated Jan. 31, 2013, awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). This disclosure was made with United States Government support under Contract No. FA8750-13-C-0225 awarded by U.S. Department of the Air Force. The United States Government has certain rights in this disclosure. This invention was made with government support under Contract Number DTRT57-13-C-10004 awarded by the Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention was made with support in part from the United States Government under Grant number N00014-12-C-0027 (WB Cognitive Channelizer). The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number W81XWH 09-1-0037 awarded by the Department of Defense Breast Cancer Research Program. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number HSHQDC-14-C-B0048 awarded by the Department of Homeland Security. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract # N00173-09-C-6009 awarded by the Naval Research Laboratory. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: W911NF-12-C-0012 awarded by Department of Defense (DOD). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. 1-485927-244014-191100, awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. DE-FC26-08NT01575, awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA8650-11-D-5401-000112 awarded by the Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number HR0011-07-9-0007 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made, in part, by employees of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by and for the Government of the United States for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with Government support under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy and Grant R01-GM099549 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made in part by employees of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. The United States Government has rights in this invention under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 between the United States Department of Energy and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory managed and operated by Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, This invention was developed under Contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number DE-FG02-06ER46294 awarded by the DOE. The U.S. government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DE-EE0004946/T-107934 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support awarded by the following agency: U.S. Department of Energy Grant DEFG02-91ER45439. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number DE-AR0000102 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38 between the United States Government and The University of Chicago and/or pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government and UChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under DE-SC0001061 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy and under 1210792 awarded by the U.S. National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government claims certain rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38 between the United States Government and the University of Chicago and/or pursuant to DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government and UChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under CBET0955124 and IIP1265144 awarded by NSF?National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract no. CBET 1034222 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of innovation research award DE SC-0006336 awarded by the Department of Energy. The Ultra-Wideband Radial Waveguide to Coaxial Combiner/Divider is assigned to the United States Government and is available for licensing for commercial purposes. Licensing and technical inquiries may be directed to the Office of Research and Technical Applications, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, Pacific, Code 72120, San Diego, Calif., 92152; voice (619) 553-5118; email ssc_pac_T2@navy.mil; reference Navy Case Number 103527. The U.S. Government may have a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of contract No. W911QX-10-D-0005. This invention was made in part with government support under Grant No. DE-EE0005341 awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract and by an employee of the United States Government and is subject to the provisions of Section 20135(b) of the National Aeronautics and Space Act, Public Law 111-314, (S)3 (124 Stat. 3330, 51 U.S.C. Chapter 201), and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA8721-05-C-0002 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract no. N68335-12-C-0408 awarded by the US Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. The Government of the United States of America has rights in this invention pursuant to Government Contract No. F04701-02-C-0002. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: B599858 awarded by Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract number DMS-0914778 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and Contract number N000141210758 awarded by the Office of Naval Research (ONR). The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 between the United States Department of Energy and Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the operation of Los Alamos National Laboratory. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, sold, imported, and/or licensed by or for the Government of the United States of America. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number 1352883 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DMR-0908070 from the National Science Foundation, Grant No. W911NF-10-1-0330 from the U.S. Army/ARO, and Grant No. HR0011-09-1-0007 from the U.S. Department of Defense/DARPA. The government has certain rights in this invention. The U.S. Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the U.S. Department of Energy and UChicago Argonne, LLC, representing Argonne National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under W911QX-12-P-0025, which was awarded by the U.S. Army ACC-APG and W911QX-10-P-0350, which was awarded by the U.S. Army Research Development and Engineering Command (REDCOM), both on behalf the Army Research Laboratory. The U.S. government may have certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein includes contributions by one or more employees of the Department of the Navy made in performance of official duties and may be manufactured, used and licensed by or for the United States Government for any governmental purpose without payment of any royalties thereon. This invention (NC 101,446) is assigned to the United States Government and is available for licensing for commercial purposes. Licensing and technical inquiries may be directed to the Technology Transfer Office, Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane, email: cran_CTO@navy.mil. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. N68335-10-C-0079, awarded by the Navy, and W81XWH-09-C-0118, awarded by the Army. The Government may have certain rights in certain aspects of the subject invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms provided for by the terms of contract number DMI-0216284 awarded by the National Science Foundation. This invention was made with government support under (1) National Institutes of Health (NIH) New Innovator Award No. DP2OD007109 awarded by the NIH Office of the Director; and (2) NIH Research Project Grant Program No. RO1DC011558 awarded by the NIH National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract Number W911NF-09-C-0035 awarded by the U.S. Army RDECOM ACQ CTR. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. R01 CA 143050 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has reserved a nonexclusive, irrevocable, royalty-free license in the invention with power to grant licenses for all governmental purposes. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 1R43EY021705-01 awarded by the National Eye Institute of the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant DK041707 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This work is supported, in part, by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (CA137513). The government may have rights in the subject matter provided herein. This invention was made with government support under DA001583 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by terms of research grant contract number 5RO1DK077116 awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). This invention was made in part with U.S. Government support from the National Institutes of Health HL10001-02. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this application. Funding for the work described herein was provided by the federal government, which has certain rights in the invention. Aspects of this invention were made with United States government support pursuant to NIH Contract# HHSN272200900008C, the United States government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. HL096525 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA126897 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. NS019108 awarded by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke of the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HD032652 and DK094538 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under R01 AI066013, AI067737-01 and AI51526-01, awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant nos. R01 AI 046464, R01 AI 082263, and AI 070955 awarded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under CA142608 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant AI074791 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CA123495 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government owns rights in this invention pursuant to a grant from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). This invention was made with government support under grant EPS-0814103 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and grant 1R21DE019232-01A2 awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NSF CBET-0755054. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers 1011820, 0937985, and 1307078 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. Certain embodiments of this invention were made with Government support under Contract Nos. HDTRA1-10-C-0034 and HDTRA1-07-C-0075 awarded by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under an Agreement/Project DE-EE0002217, Department of Energy Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, Battery Pack Manufacturing B511. The U.S. government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under National Science Foundation Grant No. 1058278. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Number W911QX12C0096 awarded by DARPA under the Maximum Mobility and Manipulation program. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was developed at least in part with the support of National Science Foundation grant number DMR-1105370. The government may have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. N000141110671 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to contract no. DE-AC05-00OR22725 between the United States Department of Energy and UT-Battelle, LLC. The inventions described herein may be made, used, or licensed by or for the U.S. Government for U.S. Government purposes. The inventions described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the United States Government for government purposes without payment of any royalties. Work described herein was made in whole or in part with Government support under Award Number: DE-FE0002472 awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 1R03-CA136014-01A2 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. DA012413, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States for all governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty. This research was made, in part, with government support under NIH Grant R01 DA12413 awarded by the National Institutes of Health; the United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DE-FG02-10ER16193 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. 1R43AI103982-01A1 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention This invention was made with government support under FA9550-07-1-0534 awarded by the Air Force Office for Scientific Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the support of the United States government under Contract numbers R43AI096679 by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), R43AI096613 by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and R01AI089512 by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. IP-0855881 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under grant number 1344891 awarded by National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under federal grant number DP2OD008586 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and CBET-1151035 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The U.S. Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. U01 HL100406 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HL108902 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. HL06350-42 and HL48318 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. Some of the research described herein was supported by a grant from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. The United States government may have certain rights in the inventions disclosed herein. This invention was made with Government support under contract number HSHQDC-10-C-00206 awarded by the Department of Homeland Security. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The inventions disclosed herein were made with Government support under the Research Project Grant (R01 HL083109) by the National Institutes of Health. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under USDA Biomass Research and Development Initiative Grant 68-3A75-7-601 and 68-3A75-6-501. The government has certain rights in the invention. The material in the accompanying sequence listing is hereby incorporated by reference into this application. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number CBET-1236708 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. FA9550-04-1-0079 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant/Contract Number(s) GM110632 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. R01EB007689 and 1R01AI076899 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States government support under grant R01 NS43530, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support of Grant No. ES009519, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States government support from the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number W911NF-15-P-0063 awarded by DARPA. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was supported, in whole or in part, by Contracts FA8650-05-M-1893 and FA8650-06-C-1016 from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and by Grant 1R43GM076859-01 from the National Institutes of Health, National Institute of General Medicine Studies. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Prime Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The subject matter of this disclosure was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-FC26-05NT42643, awarded by the Department of Energy (DOE), and the Government has certain rights in the subject matter claimed herein. This invention was made with government support under contract no. N00019-02-C-3003 awarded by the Joint Program Office (JPO). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States government support under Grant AUTC Project #410014 awarded by the Research and Innovative Technology Administration of the United States Department of Transportation through the Alaska University Transportation Center. The government has certain rights in this invention. This material is based upon work supported by the United States Army under Contract No. W15QKN-12-C-0005. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Army. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the U.S. Government for U.S. Government purposes. The invention described herein was made in the performance of official duties by employees of the Department of the Navy and may be manufactured, used, licensed by or for the Government for any governmental purpose without payment of any royalties thereon. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the U.S. Government for U.S. Government purposes. This invention was made with Government support under Contract Nos. N68335-11-C-0268, W31P4Q-11-C-0061, and W15P7T-13-C-A408, all awarded by the Army Contracting Command Office?APG on behalf of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (?DARPA?), and the Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division (?NAVAIR?). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. The invention was made with government support under Grant CBET-0756005 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Grant Nos. CA069246 awarded by the National Institutes of Health/National Cancer Institute and NS081374-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation (NSF Grant EPSCoR RII (2010-2015)). The Government may have certain rights in the invention, as specified by law. This invention was made with Government Support under Contract No. 5R01ES016665-02 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and grant HR011-04-1-0032 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with governmental support under contract number 1R15 EB006378 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contracts DC007006 and MH071315 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government. This invention was made with government support under contract number 60NANB10D002 awarded by NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology), and under contract number HR0011-11-C-0073 awarded by DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with Government support under contract N00019-16-C-0052 awarded by the Naval Air Systems Command. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Agreement No. HR0011-08-9-0001 awarded by DARPA. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. OD007307 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The embodiments described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the U.S. Government for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. HR0011-13-3-0002 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and under Grant No. ECCS 1231348 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number H98230-11-3-0011 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention has been reduced to practice thanks to the Department of Energy's Office of Science, Nuclear Physics program, and the Small Business Innovative Research program, grant number DE-SC0009509. This invention was made with Government support under Agreement No. HR0011-10-3-0007 awarded by DARPA. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. government support under contract number No. HR0011-10-9-0008 awarded by DARPA. The U.S. government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with the United States government support awarded by the following agencies: NSF 0702313 The United States government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Award Nos. CNS-1162447, CNS-1018355, and CNS-0905246 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by, or for the Government of the United States for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon. This invention was made with Government support under government contract HR0011-11-C-0058 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. R01 CA165309, RO1-CA155284, and 1R44CA168185 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, and Grant No. IIP-1214989 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. Governmental Interest?The invention described herein may be manufactured, used and licensed by or for the U.S. Government. Research underlying embodiments of the present invention was sponsored by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL). This invention was made with government support under contract number W31P4Q-09-C-0222 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (Department of Defense). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. CCF-0917230 awarded by the NSF/A Resource-Scalable Unifying Framework for Aural Signal Coding. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States for all government purposes without the payment of any royalty. The invention described and claimed herein was made in part utilizing funds supplied by the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231. The government has certain rights in this invention. The United States Government has rights in the invention described herein pursuant to Grant No. DEOE0000072 through the Department of Energy. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. HR0011-13-C-0068 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Award No. R33-HG003089 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made with Governmental support under contract number DE-FC36-07G017043 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The Government may have certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has a license in this invention as provided by the terms of Agreement No. FA9453-10-2-0102 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. This invention was developed under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract NNN12AA01C, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 USC 202) in which the Contractor has elected to retain title. This invention was made with government support under contract no. W911 NF-10-2-0023 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract no. DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy to Sandia Corporation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. DE-NT0003894 awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention was made with government support under the Energy Efficiency & Resources of the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) grant awarded by the Korean government Ministry of Knowledge Economy. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number DE-AR0000102 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number DE-AR0000102 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number DE-AR0000102 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract and by employees of the United States Government and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 U.S.C, (S)202) and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. In accordance with 35 U.S.C. (S)202, the contractor elected not to retain title. This invention was made with government support under FA-9550-10-1-0439 awarded by Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number DE-FG02-99ER45778 awarded by the Department of Energy, grant number DMR-0213282 awarded by the National Science Foundation, and grant number W911NF-07-D-0004 awarded by the Army Research Office. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support awarded by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DMR-0213282. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under FA9550-10-1-0453 awarded by the United States Air Force/AFOSR. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: B604142 awarded by Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under DE-EE0006521 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under ECCS-0901218 and ECCS-0954938 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: HR0011-12-C-0087 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention claimed herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract, and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 USC 202) in which the Contractor has elected to retain title. Materials described herein and covered by one or more of the claims in the present application were made with support by the Technical Support Working Group (TSWG). The Government may have certain rights therein. This invention was made with government support under SBIR N66001-12-P-5105 awarded by the Small Business Administration. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has ownership rights in this invention. Licensing inquiries may be directed to Office of Research and Technical Applications, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, Pacific, Code 72120, San Diego, Calif., 92152; telephone (619)553-5118; email: ssc_pac_t2@navy.mil. Reference Navy Case No. 102,593. This invention was made with government support under grant CNS-0845476 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention was made with United States Government assistance under Contract No. 13-C-0007 awarded by a government customer. The United States Government has certain rights in the present invention. The work described herein has been supported by National Science Foundation grant numbers 0910842 and 1329686, and by the United States Department of Health and Human Services Office of National Coordinator for Health Information Technology grant number 90TR0003-01. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes. This invention was made with United States government support under Agreement No. HR0011-08-9-0001 awarded by DARPA. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. W911 NF-07-1-0028 awarded by the Army Research Office (managed under DARPA: IT-MANET Program) to the University of Texas, Austin, Northwestern University Subcontract Number UTA06-790/A2). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contracts CA114747, CA118681, and CA119367 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. W81XWH-07-1-0672 awarded by the U.S. Army, Medical Research and Materiel Command. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract/grant number R43-AT01145-01 awarded by the SBA/NTH. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract/Grant No. R01 NS054886, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used and licensed by or for the U.S. Government. This invention was made with Government support under NIHR21AR057156 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The following invention was made with Government support under contract number NIH GM077516. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. AR061515, AR061307 and AR064610 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number CA 130911 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract CA049605 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract R21 AI076145 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under MURI grant number is W911NF-09-1-0305; proposal number is 56157-LS-MUR and DARPA grant number is W911NF-06-0161; proposal number is 50547-LS-DRP.) awarded by the MURI?Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative?Program funded by the US Army Research Laboratory (ARL) and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Number 1R43AQ1084269-01 awarded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under AI018045 and AI026289 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA155295 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was developed in part using funds from a grant from the Government of the United States of America (NEI/NIH grant no. R21-017971). The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number OD007394 awarded the National Institutes of Health. The federal government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number 5R44EB005905, awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government Support under Contract No. DK085633 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The US Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. NS054084 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract TR001085 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CBET1014673, awarded by the National Science Foundation and under Contract No. FA9550-10-1-0509, awarded by the United States Air Force/AFOSR. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government Support under Grant No. DE-FG02-03ER-15461 awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. W-7405-ENG-82 between the U.S. Department of Energy and Iowa State University. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-07CH11358 between the U.S. Department of Energy and Iowa State University and pursuant to United States Army Contract No. W15QKN-11-2-0008. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. HR00011-10-C-0025 awarded by DARPA. The Government may have certain rights with regard to the invention. The invention was supported, in whole or in part, by grants under Contract Number W911NF-08-2-0004 from the Army Research Laboratory, Contract Numbers CMMI-07466 38 and CCF-0926148 from the National Science Foundation, and Contract Number FA9550-09-1-0156-DOD35CAP from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DTFR5314C00021 awarded by the Federal Railroad Administration. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms provided for by the terms of grants F33615-03-M-3327 and FA8650-04-C-3405 awarded by the U.S. Air Force, AFRL, Air Vehicles Directorate, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. The Government has rights to this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. This invention was made with government support under grant #5P50HG004071 awarded by the NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract W56HZV-07-C-0577 awarded by the United States Army. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under FA9550-10-1-0523 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR). The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under RR016480-12 by the National Center for Research Resources and under GM103451-12 by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The presently disclosed subject matter and its respective embodiments were made with U.S. Government support under Grant No. R01CA114095, awarded by the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers AG20245, AG08051, and AG15408 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention is made with government support under NIH grant AI102725 awarded by National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) to Venigalla B. Rao. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made in part with U.S. Government support under National Institutes of Health grant No. CA 58297. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under 1R01NS071835 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government Support under grants NIH P01AI073748 and NIH R01NS045937 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. EY016546; P50 GM081879; and R01 GM055040 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described in this application was made in part with funds provided by Grant 5R44 CA101283-03 from the National Institutes of Health. The US Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers AI 031044 and CA 074958 awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made, in part, with Government support under National Institutes of Health Grant HL-058496 to G.L.R. Accordingly, the United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant U54-AI057159 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention was made in the course of research that was supported by National Science Foundation (NSF) Grant DMR 02-43314-3. The United States government may have certain rights to the invention or inventions herein. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States for all governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention pursuant to Department of Energy Contract No. DE-AC04-94AL85000 with Sandia Corporation. This invention was made with government support under grant number DE-FG02-03ER15457 awarded by the Department of Energy and grant number N00014-11-1-0690 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made in part with United States Government support under grants DE-FE0002474 awarded by the Department of Energy. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under FA9550-09-1-0482 awarded by the USAF/AFOSR. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. HR0011-12-1-0003 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and under Grant No. AI098057 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 5R01HL080245, Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Awards Nos. T32CA009351 and K12CA076930, and National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Grants Nos. U01HL100395 and R01HL080245, all awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was supported, in whole or in part, by grants R44DK065508 and R44DK076326 from the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract Nos. AI062885 and HHSN272200800048C awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH)/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under EEC-0540879 awarded by National Science Foundation and under DE-FG02-02ER63445 awarded by U.S. Department of Energy and under N66001-12-C-4040 awarded by U.S. Department of Defense Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. R01 HL087285 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the U.S. Department of Energy and the University of Chicago representing Argonne National Laboratory. This invention was made with United States Government support under contract number N394309-14-C-1487 awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made in part with Government support under Grant Number DE-AC02-07CH11358 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This disclosure was made with government support under FA 8650-09-D-2923-0021 awarded by the United States Air Force. The government has certain rights in the disclosure. This invention was made with Government support under contract number N00014-09-D-0821 awarded by the United States Navy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made, at least in part, with U.S. Government support under contract number FA8650-09-D2923, awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made in part by an employee of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by and for the Government of the United States for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon of therefor. This invention was made with government support under CMMI1030887 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. N00014-09-1-1000 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. IOS0965380, awarded by the National Science Foundation and from the United States Department of Agriculture under Hatch Act Project No. PEN04372. The government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA contract and by employees of the United States Government and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 U.S.C. (S)202) and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. In accordance with 35 U.S.C. (S)202, the contractor elected not to retain title. This invention was made with government support under N00178-07-D-4078 DO EHP7 awarded by United States Navy. The government has certain rights in the invention. Per 48 CFR 52.227-11(b) the Federal Government shall have a nonexclusive, nontransferable, irrevocable, paid-up license. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 1R01AI073204 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was supported, in whole or in part, by a grant 1P01CAl24570-01A1 from the National Cancer Institute. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under RO1-CA20003 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R01EB008743-01A2 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was supported, in whole or in part, by contract DE-SC0011880 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with Government support under H94003-07-2-0702, awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense, and N66001-07-1-2007, awarded by the U.S. Department of the Navy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This work was supported by the Department of Defense under Contract No. FA8650-05-C-7211. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States for all governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty. The United States Government has rights in the present invention pursuant to an employer-employee relationship with some of the inventors as U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory employees or contractors. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. FA8721-05-C-0002 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. TIA-W911W6-13-2-0011 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Government Contract No. NR0000-14-C-0206, awarded by the National Reconnaissance Office. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. W31P4Q-10-0237 awarded by U.S. Army Contracting Command. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: HR0011-07-9-0002 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under contract #NBCHC090054/C09PC75596 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. N66001-15-C-4027. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under AFOSR FA 9550-08-1-0431 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231, Subcontract 6951370 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. FA2386-14-1-4067 awarded by the Asian Office of Aerospace Research and Development. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25946 and was awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DE-SC0011345 awarded by the Department of Energy on Feb. 18, 2014. This invention was made with government support under N00014-13-1-0565 awarded by the Office Of Naval Research and under FA9550-15-1-0094 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract: W911NF-12-1-0605, awarded by the U.S. Army. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made under US Government contact number FA8650-11-C-7181 and therefore the US Government may have certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number B608115 awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under N0014-11-1-0123 awarded by the Office of Naval Research and under EECS-1351871 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 between the United States Department of Energy and Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the operation of Los Alamos National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. FA9550-12-1-0053 awarded by Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. The U.S. Government may have rights in the invention under Government Contract No. H94003-04-D-0005/7600009933 awarded by the U.S. Government to Northrop Grumman and under Government Contract No. F33657-02-D-0009/4743848 awarded by the U.S. Government to Lockheed Martin. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Agreement No. HR0011-08-9-0001 awarded by DARPA. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DE-AC02-98CH10886, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. N00014-15-C-0049 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Nos. DE-SC0001299 and DE-FG02-09ER46577 awarded by the US Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: HR0011-12-C-0087 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under N00014-12-1-0037, awarded by the U.S. Navy, Office of Naval Research. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under U.S. Navy contract # N00039-08-C-0022 awarded by The U.S. Navy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under contract MSA-PAT-2015003 awarded by United States Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. FA9550-09-C-0165 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant DE-FG02-06ER54877 and DE-FG03-93ER54220 awarded by the US Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government may have certain rights to this invention under Management and Operating Contract No. DE-AC05-06OR23177 from the Department of Energy. This invention was made with government funds under contract number N00014-15-C-0051 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number U54GM104942 awarded by the National Institute of Health/NIGMS, and grant number P20GM109098 (CoBRE) awarded by the National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number NSF-CMMI 0800606 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract DA017895 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under NIH HL RO1 091062 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under W81XWH-11-1-0720 and W81XWH-10-2-0033 awarded by the United States Army. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under W81XWH-06-1-0574 awarded by Army/MRMC?Medical Research and Materiel Command, and AR058356 awarded by National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. CA127892, CA138634 and CA136667 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA122985 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made with government support under Grant Numbers AI072766 and AI090837 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made partially with U.S. Government support from the United States National Institutes of Health under SBIR grant 1R43DK097940-01A1 and STTR grant 1R41DK099027-01A1 awarded to BioTherapeutics Inc. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 1R01CA190617-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA022484 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under P50 NS040828 and RO1 AR044345, awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R01-Al108749-01, R01-DK051406, and P50 DK645400 awarded by the NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract U54 AI57153-02 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and contract MDA972-97-1-0007 awarded by the Department of Defense-Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Number W81XWH-09-1-0071 awarded by the Department of Defense (DOD). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. RO1 HL087285 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. W81XWH-11-2-0067 awarded by the Army Medical Research and Material Command, The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. Portions of the disclosure herein may have been supported in part by grants from the National Science Foundation/Small Business Innovative Research Grant No. 0419821 and the National Institutes of Health/Small Business Technology Transfer Research Grant No. 1 R41 HL080825-01. The United States Government may have certain rights in this application. This invention was made with government support under DMR-0213805 and DMR-0243715 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under NSF Grant Nos. CBET-0853777. STTR-1010133 and DOE Grant No. DE-SC0001169 awarded by the National Science Foundation and Department of Energy, respectively. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under DMR-0820484 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Subcontract No. 00132415 issued by Battelle Energy Alliance operating under U.S. Government Contract No. DE-AC07-05ID14517 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. W91CRB-11-C-0048 awarded by DARPA. The Government may have certain rights with regard to the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Nos. FA9550-13-1-0156 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and DGE-1144086 awarded by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The embodiments herein may be manufactured, used, and/or licensed by or for the United States Government without the payment of royalties thereon. This invention was made with Government support under Contract Number W911NF-09-C-0031 awarded by the U.S. Army RDECOM ACQ CTR. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-AC09-08SR22470 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy, under Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy, under Grant X10-8049-C awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. FA 9550-09-1-0581, awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. N-00019-12-D-0002 awarded by the United States Navy. The government has certain rights in this invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344, between the U.S. Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government. The invention was made with government support under U.S. National Institutes of Health grant number AI023007. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. R01 HL107550 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under AI067769, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number P50 GM086145 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. CHE-1301092 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States government support under grant numbers MH082038, CA129127, CA142580, MH074411 and GM067082, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under R01 CA 107098 and W81XWH-10-1-0989, awarded by National Institute of Health and the Army/Medical Research Material and Command. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HDTRA1-11-1-0041 awarded by Defense Threat Reduction Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was supported, in part, by the American Heart Association grant number: 0655133B. The federal government may have certain rights to this invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DMR1313553, awarded by the National Science Foundation and under Grant No. EB012575, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under contract DE-EE0003916 awarded by the Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant number 70NANB11H171 by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number N00014-11-1-0690 awarded by the Office of Naval Research and grant number DMR-1121262 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under W911NF-11-C-0056 awarded by U.S. Army RDECOM ACQ CTR. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under contract numbers HHSN268201000043C, R01-GM097399, and DP3DK094346 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under HR0011-11-2-0003 and N66001-12-C-4207 awarded by the Department of Defense and under GM095501 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with federal funding under Grant Nos. AI087431 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number PO1CA092625 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under the NIH Pioneer Award DP1MH100706, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was developed in part by Grant-in-Aid awards from the Greater SouthEast Affiliate of the American Heart Association (12GRNT12070291 and 09GRNT2260914). Therefore, the Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under Grant No. AI068978 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Federal Government support under GM060950 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was also supported by the American Lebanese Syrian Associated Charities (ALSAC) of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. HR0011-12-C-0005 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was (made with government support under 2R44CA165312-02, awarded by the National Cancer Institute. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to the employer-employee relationship of the Government to the inventors as U.S. Department of Energy employees and site-support contractors at the National Energy Technology Laboratory. This invention was made with Government support under Contract DE-AC05-76RLO1830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support from the National Science Foundation under CBET Award No. 1335927. The government has certain rights in this reference in its entirety. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. N00019-02-C-3003 awarded by the United States Navy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in this invention pursuant to contract no. FA8650-09-D-2922 awarded by the Department of the Air Force. This invention was made with government support under FARDS Program W911W6-10-2-0007 awarded by Army Aviation Technical Directorate (AATD). The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. DMR-0819762 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The subject matter of the present invention was developed under a research contract with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Contract No. DE-FE0009484. The government of the United States has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of SBIR Grant No. DAAE30-03-C-1077 awarded by the Department of Defense on Jul. 17, 2006. The present invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. CCF1439011, CMMI1462656 and EAR1442623, all awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this application and any resultant patents claiming priority to this application pursuant to contract DE-AC12-00SN39357 between the United States Department of Energy and Bechtel Marine Propulsion Corporation Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory. This invention was made with Government support under Contract Number N00178-04-D-4143 awarded by Naval Explosive Ordinance Disposal Technology Division (NAVEODTECHDIV). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with US government support under grant no. CNS 0932015 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The US government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Agreement No. HR0011-08-9-0001 awarded by DARPA. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention was made with Government support under award numbers ARO W911NF-09-1-0450 and NSF ECCS-0824067 by the Army Research Office and the National Science Foundation, respectively. The Government has certain rights in the present invention. This invention was made with government support under grant 0707748 awarded by the National Science Foundation, and grants HG006879 and HG006882 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. Some aspects of the invention described in this application were sponsored by 1R21 DE019213-01A1 from the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research. Accordingly, the Federal Government has rights in this application. This invention was made with Government support under grant 1R43GM108137-01 and grant 5R43MH079542-02 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. HSHQDC-12-F-00048 awarded by the Department of Homeland Security. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under award number BTRR P 41 RR008079 from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contracts CA159992, EB008108, and EB015891 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Nos. DE-FG02-07ER46454 and DE-SC0001088 awarded by the Department of Energy and Contract No. W911NF-07-D-0004 awarded by the Army Research Office. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number HR0011-13-C-0068 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with the support of the United States government under Award number DE-SC0013104 by the United States Department of Energy. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. FA8721-05-C-0002 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This disclosure does not relate to work performed under a specific Government contract. This invention was made with United States Government support under contract number 2013-12101100008. THE GOVERNMENT HAS CERTAIN RIGHTS IN THIS INVENTION. This invention was made with Government support under Contract Number H98230-04-3-0001 awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under 14-5029-0-2-303 awarded by the U.S. Department of the Interior. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. N00014-10-1-0951 awarded by the U.S. Navy. The government has certain rights in the invention. Governmental Interest?The invention described herein may be manufactured, used and licensed by or for the U.S. Government. This invention was made with government support under 1R43OD012216-01A1 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support. The Goverment has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government Support under Grant No. CMMI-1229049 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This is an invention jointly developed by Argonne National Laboratory and Delphi Automotive System, LLC. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government and UChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory and pursuant to Sub Contract No. 4F-31041 between the United States Government/Department of Energy (Argonne National Laboratory) and Delphi Automotive Systems, LLC. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. D13AP00050 awarded by the U.S. Department of Interior and under Contract No. W911NF-13-D-0001 awarded by the Army Research Office. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract No. FA8650-14-C-7402 awarded by USAF/AFMC. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention was developed with funding from the Office of Naval Research under award n00014-06-1143. The government retains certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under W911 NF-08-1-0482 and W911 NF-12-1-0607 awarded by the ARMY/ARO and HR0011-06-C-0052 and HR0011-10-C-0125 awarded by the US Department of Defense/DARPA. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NREL Subcontract No. ZAX-5-33628-02, Prime Contract No: DE-AC36-99GO10337 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government claims certain rights in this invention pursuant to Contract Nos. DE-AC02-98CH10886 and DE-SC0012704 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy to Brookhaven Science Associates, LLC, Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38 between the United States Government and the University of Chicago and/or pursuant to DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government and UChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory. This invention was made with Government support under Government Contract #09-C-0070 awarded by the U.S. Government. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. DE-FE0000303 awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention under Contract No. DE-AC36-08G028308 between the United States Department of Energy and the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, the Manager and Operator of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. The subject matter of the present application was made with government support from the Air Force Research Laboratory under contract numbers FA8650-10-M-1838 and F093-148-1611, and from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under contract number 51.02-8761. The government may have rights to the subject matter of the present application. This invention was made under NIH grant R44 CA 101067. The US government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for Governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties. This invention was made with government support under grant DE-EE0002892 awarded by the Department of Energy and grant 0903466 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under agreement No. DE-FG02-07ER46394, awarded by the Department of Energy, and under agreement No. CMMI-0946418, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. N00014-12-C-0130, awarded by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) and under Contract No. HR0011-12-C-0094, awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made under US Government contract no. N00014-09-C-0234 and therefore the US Government may have certain rights in and to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 1247583 awarded by the National Science Foundation and FA860-13-C-7351 awarded by the USAF/ESC. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: W911NF-06-3-0001 awarded by Army Research Office (ARO). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under W911NF-06-3-0001 awarded by the Army Research Office (ARO). The Government has certain rights to this invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of contract No. N61339-06-C-0165 awarded by DARPA. This invention was made with government support under Grant EY13520 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under EY014375 and EY001319 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. N00014-08-1-1202 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. 1417279 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under the U.S. Department of the Army, Grant No. W81XWH-07-2-0011. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 3R01 DC003311-6A1S1 and P30 DC005803 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under Cooperative Agreement Number 70NANB7H7021 awarded by the National Institute of Standard and Technology (NIST). The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number EB007556 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made in whole or in part with government support under grant number R01 DK598006, awarded by the National Institute of Health; under grant number R29 CA068096 awarded by the National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health; under grant number R15 HD35329, awarded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institute of Health and under grant number R01 DK59800, awarded by the National Institute of Health. The government may have certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with support from the U.S. Government under grant Nos. CA112102 and CA141908, awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and accordingly, the U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HL102368, HL114775, and CA152194 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant no. 2R01-MH062646-12 awarded by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), under Grant no. 5R01-MH073676-04 awarded by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), under Grant no. 5R01-NS031373-15 awarded by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), under Grant no. 1R01-DA023947-01 awarded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), and under Grant no. 1U19-MH097056-01 awarded by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 1 R43 AI106188-01 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under AG024150 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under DPI OD000285 and U54 CA119341 awarded by the National Instituttes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant DK038432 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This work was supported by the following grant from the National Institutes of Health, Grant No: RO1 HL091998. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. W81XWH-10-1-0291 awarded by the Army Medical Research Command and under Grant No. R01 AI065824 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with the United States government support under grant Nos. HL118087 and HL121197 awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. Certain embodiments and aspects of the disclosed invention were made with government support under Contract No. NS-045236 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The work reported herein was performed in part at the Cornell NanoScale Facility, a member of the National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network, which is supported by the National Science Foundation Grant ECS 03-35765. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was supported in part by the U.S. Government under Grant No. AI080959A from the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant DK079806 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA103828 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Small Business Innovation Research Phase 1 Award No. 1248546 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract RR025744 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CBET 0853157 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made under government support under Contract No. FA8650-12-C-7227 awarded by U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract FAA8650-12-C-7274 awarded by DARPA/AFRL. The government has certain rights in the invention. The research in this document is being developed by Ventions, LLC with funding from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). Distribution Statement A: Approved for Public Release, Distribution Unlimited. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for Governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with Government support of Grant No. U54 CA119347, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number DEFG36-08G088108 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DMR-0804449, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. HR0011-10-1-0075 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made in the performance of work under a NASA cooperative agreement and by employees of the United States Government and is subject to the provisions of Public Law 96-517 (35 U.S.C. (S)202) and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. In accordance with 35 U.S.C. (S)202, the cooperative agreement recipient elected to retain title. This invention was made with government support under Grant Number CHE-1230609 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under CA023168, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number AI078251 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The subject matter of this application may have been funded in part under a research grant from the National Science Foundation under Grant Number Career 0747778, and under a research grant from the National Institutes of Health under Chemical Biology Interface Training Number 1-492576-510000-191788. The U.S. Government may have rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under grants RO1NS051303 and F32NS066730 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. R37 AI-42347 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government. This invention was made with government support under Grant P01 AI056299 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This statement is included solely to comply with 37 C.F.R. (S)401.14(a)(f)(4) and should not be taken as an assertion or admission that the application discloses and/or claims only one invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. HL63993 and NS044155 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under NIH AI035875 awarded by the NIH. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Numbers GM080374 and GM096973 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number CBET-1159397 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers DE020480 and DE014227 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. The United States Government claims certain rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38 between the United States Government and the University of Chicago and/or pursuant to DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the Untied States Government and UChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. HL083109 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under HL101200 and HL007284 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA013106 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. CA129357 and CA114028, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant numbers G12 MD007599 awarded by the National Institute on Minority Health and Heal Disparities. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant No. DE-FC02-07ER64494 awarded by the Department of Energy, Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center (DOE-GLBRC). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was supported in part by funds obtained from the U.S. Government (National Institutes of Health Director's Pioneer Award number DP1-OD-04117), and the U.S. Government therefore has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Federal Grant Nos. IF32CA142095 and R01CA127727, both awarded by the National Institutes of Health: National Cancer Institute. The government has certain rights in the invention. This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grant No. NIH R37-AG012279. The government has certain rights to the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contracts HL099995 and OD000251 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Small Business Innovation Research grant number 1R43OD023028-01 awarded by the National Institute of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. Activities relating to the development of the subject matter of this invention were funded at least in part by United States Government, Naval Air Warfare Center Contract No. N68335-07-C-0108, and thus may be subject to license rights and other rights in the United States. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. N00014-09-D-0821-0001 awarded by the United States Navy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. FA9550-12-1-0035, awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense; Grant No. FA9550-09-1-0581, awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense; and Grant No. N00014-09-1-1066, also awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This work was supported by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency/US Army Research Office grant W911NF-04-1-0174, the Texas Advanced Technology Program grant 009741-0130-2003, and the Robert A. Welch Foundation. This disclosure was made with government support under FA-8650-09-D-2923-0021 awarded by the United States Air Force. The government has certain rights in the disclosure. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in this invention pursuant to contract number W911W6-11-2-0009 awarded by the Department of Defense. This disclosure was made with government support under FA-8650-09-D-2923-0021 awarded by the United States Air Force. The government has certain rights in the disclosure. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA8650-09-D-2923-0021 awarded by the United States Air Force. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number DE-EE0003403-Recovery Act-System Level Demonstration of Highly Efficient and Clean, Diesel Powered Class 8 Trucks (SUPERTRUCK) awarded by the Department of Energy (DOE). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No.: F33657-03-C-2044. The government therefore has certain rights in this invention. These inventions were made with government support under contract number N00014-12-C-0434 awarded by the United States Navy. The Government has certain rights in the inventions. This invention was made with support under Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Contract No. W31P4Q-13-0077 awarded by DARPA for the DARPA Low Cost Arm. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made in part by an employee of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with United States Government support under Contract number N00024-13-C-5403 with the Department of the Navy. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. The inventions described herein may be manufactured, used and licensed by or for the United States Government. The invention described herein was made by an employee of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with Government support under W31P4Q-11-1-0003 and W31P4Q-12-1-0001, awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made in part by employees of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. This invention was made with government support under contract number EEC-1160483 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract R43CA133987 awarded by the National Cancer Institute. The government has certain rights in the invention. This work was supported in part by the National Institutes of Health: NCI (RC1 CA145075) and NINDS (K08 NS076548-01). The US government may have rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant nos. CA-55164, CA-16672 and CA116199 from the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. R01 EB000720 awarded by the National Institutes of Health; the Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CA135110 and A1079222 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract DAMD 17-02-C-0095 awarded by U.S. Army Medical Materiel Development Activity and Contract N00014-10-M-0201 awarded by the U.S. Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. DP10D0002516 awarded by the National Institutes for Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under N68936-11-C-0003 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was developed under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention has been made with government support under Contract No. H98230-12-C-0236 awarded by Maryland Procurement Office. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant EY011787 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract no. DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U. S. Department of Energy to Sandia Corporation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. HSHQDC-13-C-B0026 awarded by Department of Homeland Security. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number 1116540 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. FA8650-11-C-1003 awarded by the Air Force Research Laboratory. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was supported by ICT & Future Planning, the Ministry of Science, the Republic of Korea Government under Contract Number NRF-2017R1D1A1B03029788 awarded by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Nos. 5 K08 CA108926-03 and NCI Grant R21CA101355 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, and National Functional Genomics Center Grant No. DAMD 17-02-2-0051 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under contract number W911NF-06-3-0001 awarded by the United States Army. The United States government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with United Kingdom Government support under contract number W911NF-06-3-0001 awarded by the Ministry of Defense. This invention was made with government support under contract number HS-1208287 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract FA8650-08-D-3569 (AVIATR) DO 0020 awarded by the United States Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention relates to navigation communication systems and more particularly to communication protocols for aerial vehicle navigation. This invention was made with Government support under H98230-13-C-0220 awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract #CCF1054179 and CCF1217418 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract no. DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U. S. Department of Energy to Sandia Corporation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DE-EE0006433 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government may have certain rights to this invention under Management and Operating Contract No. DE-AC05-060R23177 from the Department of Energy. This invention was made with United States Government support under DARPA Agreement No. FA8650-14-c-7466. THE GOVERNMENT HAS CERTAIN RIGHTS IN THIS INVENTION. This invention was made with government support under EB015894, EB006835, EB007327, and EB013543 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract Nos. DE-SC0000957 and DE-EE0005310 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: W911NF-10-1-0324 awarded by Army Research Office (ARO). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number EFRI 1332348 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. FA8721-05-C-0002 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under Contract Number H94003-04-D-006 with the Department of Defense. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under U.S. Government Contract Number B14-2013308G001 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under SBIR Contract NNX14CC12C awarded by NASA. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. NS045488 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made by employees of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for Government purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefore. The invention described herein was also made in the performance of work under a NASA contract and is subject to the provisions of Section 305 of the National Aeronautics and Space Action of 1958, Public Law 111-314, (S)3 (124 Stat. 3330; 51 U.S.C. Chapter 201). This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. W81XWH-10-1-0601 awarded by the U.S. Army Medical Research & Material Command (USAMRMC) and the Telemedicine & Advanced Technology Research Center (TATRC). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under IIS-0846112, awarded by the National Science Foundation; NIH 1R01AG036424, awarded by the National Institutes of Health; N00014-12-1-0740, awarded by the Office of Naval Research; and N000141010278, awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant #SAP 4100045998 awarded by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CBET-1350154-01 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grants HL068135, HL081784, HL096376, HL097376, and HL098174 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under OD008735 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Federal Government support under contract number EY022774 awarded by the NIH National Eye Institute; contract numbers AG022550 and AG027956 awarded by the NIH Institute on Aging; contract number DE-FG02-05ER15647 awarded by the Department of Energy and Contract No. 1046099 awarded by NSF-CBET. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under AG009909, AG017242, AG041122, and AG046061 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contracts NS069375 and TR001085 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant numbers AR055073, DK080774 and DK093903 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in this invention. The invention disclosed herein was made, at least in part, with Government support under Grant No. NIH R01DE16133 and Grant No. NIH R01DE16133 from the National Institutes of Health. Accordingly, the U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under award number RC1 AI086061 from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, award number U54 AI057158 from the NIH, award number HHSN266200700010C from the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and award number U01 AI070469 from the NIH. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant/Contract number AI-N01-054210 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under SBIR grant 2R44GM079873-02 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NS068099 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under GM079238 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contracts 2R01 DK099800-06A1, R01CA135294, and R21CA138353A2 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NS059302 and STTR grant R42HL112518 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain right in the invention Some embodiments of the invention disclosed herein were made with government support under Grant No. FA8650-13-C-6376 awarded by the Department of Defense. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under NIH K02 AR049346. Accordingly, the Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant No. R24EY12893-01. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant DE-AC26-07NT42677 awarded by the Department of Energy (DOE). The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-06H11357 between the U.S. Department of Energy and UChicago Argonne, LLC, representing Argonne National Laboratory. This invention was made, at least in part, with U.S. government support under ARPA-E Contract No. DE-AR-0000345 and the Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-SC0004453. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number W81XWH-05-1-0379 and NSF Grant No. 0736007, awarded by the U.S. Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention is made with government support under W911NF-10-1-0518 awarded by the U.S. Army/Army Research Office. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number P42 ES016465, P30 ES000210, R21 ES020120, and T32 ES007060-32 awarded by The National Institutes of Health (NIH). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number DE-FC26-05NT42643 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain right in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract no. 1130636 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract no. DE-FG02-03ER46072 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. 6927935 and OSP Project No. 6927935 awarded by the Advanced Research Project Agency?Energy (ARPA-E). The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by, or for the Government of the United States for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon. The inventions described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the United States Government for government purposes without payment of any royalties. This invention was made with government support under FA9550-13-1-0004 awarded by the United States Air Force, and 32 CFR 168a awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under 1-R03-CA159353-01 ?1, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. ES002710 awarded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. CA135328 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. GM 29028 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. GM59426 awarded by the National Institute of Health and Grant No. CHE-1362763 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under NS057153 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention is made with government support under NIH grant AI102725 awarded by National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) to Venigalla B. Rao. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract numbers DE-AC02-98CH10886 and DE-SC0012704, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant nos. DK026523 and GM087410, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. CA140995 and Grant No. CA129822 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under grant R01 AI 071145-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under OD004197 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grants Nos. NS-38037-01 and AI-435801, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 5R01 CA096844 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant no. 5 RO1 CA082683-15 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and grant no. 5 T32 CA009370-31 from the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under EB000708 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CHE1212692 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The inventors received partial funding support through the National Science Foundation (Grant No. CHE0101178) and support through the joint Oklahoma University-University of Arkansas Center for Semiconductor Physics in Nanostructures. The Federal Government may retain certain license rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant R01 CA097214 awarded by the National Institute of Health (NCI). The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. P 41 GM 104605 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Numbers GM080374 and GM096973 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number RO1 AI022021 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under federal grants U54 CA 126524 awarded by the National Cancer Institute. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. DP1 GM105378 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support GM62862-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention disclosed herein was made with support from the Government of the United States of America under Grant Nos. MCB0209789 and MCB0951170 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The invention described herein was made in whole or in part with government support under United States Grant No. 0604923 awarded by the National Science Foundation under the Plant Genome Research Project Grants Program. The United States Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with United States Government support under Basic Award W81XWH-11-1-0607 from the United States Department of Defense, United States Army Medical Research Acquisition Activity (USAMRAA) Grant W81XWH-08-1-0697 from the United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC). The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under DE-FC02-07ER64494, DE-SC0008103 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under grant number R15CA159250 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. Portions of this invention were made with Government support under NIH Grant numbers HG02003 and CA81952 awarded by the PHS. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under federal grant numbers R01-A1068804, K24-AI093969, 5U01AI066569-05, 3U01AI066569-05S1 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and N66001-09-C-2082 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defense. The U.S. Government has certain rights to this invention. The invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. R01 CA112291, K99 CA149186, and CA016672 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and Grant No. W81XWH-10-1-0558 awarded by the Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made using a grant from the U.S. National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government therefore retains certain rights in the invention, according to the terms of NIH RO-1 grant CA113507. This invention was made with government support under GM082116 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. Certain aspects of the present invention were made with Government support under Grant No. N00014-11-1-0894, awarded by the U.S. Navy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. DE-AC09-085R22470 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under FA9550-09-1-0482 awarded by the USAF/AFOSR. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant NNX07AT67A awarded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; grant NNX11AM17A awarded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; and, supported by the NSF under grant number CMMI0900064. The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. NNX11AJ89G awarded by NASA. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under DE-AC04-94AL85000 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with support from the United States government under Grant No. DMR-0820484 awarded by the National Science Foundation, and Grant No. DE-SC0000989 awarded by the Department of Energy. The United States government has certain rights to this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Universal Technology Corporation Prime Contract: F33615-03-D-5204, Task Order 0035; Program: Nondestructive Evaluation Technology Initiatives Program II (NTIP II) Air Force Research Laboratories ?Sensing Technologies for Harsh Environments?. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under Contract No. HR0011-10-C-0125 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Defense Sciences Office. The U.S. Government has certain rights to this invention. The invention claimed herein was supported in part under Army Research Office (D. Woolard, Contract No. W911NF-09-C-0097) and NSF Grant Nos. MRSEC DMR-0820521 DMR-0907475, EPS-1004094 with primary support under MRI DMR-0922937. Additional support was provided by the University of Nebraska, the J.A. Woollam Co. and the J.A. Woollam Foundation. The United States Government might have certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made in part with Government support under N41756-11-C-3876 awarded by the Navy Engineering Logistics Office. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This work was supported by the United States government under the following grants: Air Force Office of Scientific Research Award FA9550-09-1-0669-DOD35CAP and Department of Energy Award DE-AC05-06OR23100. The government agency has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Number N00019-11-G-0001 awarded by The United States Department of Defense. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under CBET-1236760 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was developed at least in part with the support of United States National Science Foundation grant number NSF1000002370 and Ohio Third Frontier TVSF Grant (phase-I) grant number 1000002210ODOD. The government may have certain rights in the invention. The work resulting in this invention was supported in part by NIH Grant Nos. HL69484, HL63927and HL052320. Accordingly, the U.S. Government may be entitled to certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant HL-13629 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) Contract N00024-12-C-4516 titled ?Advanced Detection of Electronic Counterfeits? and awarded by the United States Navy. The government has certain rights in the invention. The invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC07-05-ID14517, awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 8P41-EB015893 awarded by the National Center for Research Resources, NIBIB of NIH and Penn Comprehensive Neuroscience Center Pilot Grant, University of Pennsylvania. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract Nos. P01-CA85878, SAIC 29XS161, T32-EB005172 and U01-CA166104 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of Agreement No. M0856145 awarded by the National Science Foundation and Agreement No. NA11OAR4310201 awarded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association. The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under Grant No FA9550-10-1-0053 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR). The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. N68335-12-C-0123 awarded by NAVAL AIR WARFARE CTR AIRCRAFT DIVISION. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. 1068809 and 1352511 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The government has certain rights in the invention This invention was made with government support under Grant No.FA9550-12-1-0488 awarded by the Air Force and under Grant No.DE-FG02-07ER46405 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was developed under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 between Sandia Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. The invention described herein was made by an employee of the United States Government and may be manufactured and used by or for the Government of the United States of America for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalties thereon or therefor. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. A-6779-I awarded by the Department of Veterans Affairs, and N01 HD010018, N01 HD053403, R01 DC009899 and R01 HD063931 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under IIS0713509 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under HR0011-09-C-0002 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number F19628-00-C-0002 awarded by the Air Force. The government has certain right in this invention. This invention was made with U.S. Government support under contract number H98230-13-D-0124, awarded by the Department of Defense. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement between EMC Corporation and Los Alamos National Security, LLC. The United States government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 between the United States Department of Energy and Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the operation of Los Alamos National Laboratory. This invention was made with the United States government support under grant FA8750-09-2-0010 awarded by the Air Force Rome Labs (AFRL), along with grant CCF-0424422, awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The United States government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. DK072085 and DK072085S01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, and an individual Merit Award awarded by the Department of Veterans Affairs to Michael E. Brier. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under Government Contract No. FA8750-10-C-0169, awarded by the Department of the Air Force. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. D11PC20201 Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: H98230-11-C-0276 awarded by the Department of Defense (DoD). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under HR0011-09-C-0002 awarded by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. W911NF-11-C-0216 awarded by the Army Research Office. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This application was made with government support under Contract Number N3237B-06-C-1903 awarded by [federal agency withheld]. The U.S. government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with United States Government (?USG?) support and the USG has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the United States Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under grant no. W911NF-08-1-0317 awarded by the Army Research Office, grant no. FA9550-10-1-0524 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, and grant nos. 1104191 and 1124131 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. The present invention was made in the course of federally sponsored research or development pursuant to U.S. Department of Energy Project RF #325111. The United States Government may have certain Walk-In-Rights in the invention. The invention described and claimed herein was made in part utilizing funds supplied by the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 between the U.S. Department of Energy and the Regents of the University of California for the management and operation of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: H98230-13-D-0122 awarded by the Maryland Procurement Office. The Government has certain rights to this invention. The work described herein was sponsored at least in part by the Emerging Technology Fund of Texas, Project ?UT Dallas Sub: High-K III-V MOSFETs,? grant no. UTD 09-10. The state of Texas may have certain rights to the subject matter disclosed herein. This invention was made with government support under Contracts No. FA 9453-04-2-0041 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number DE-AC02-98CH10886 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. The United States Government has certain rights to the invention pursuant to Grant No. CMMI-0531171 from the National Science Foundation to the University of Massachusetts. The invention described and claimed herein was made in part utilizing funds supplied by the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 between the U.S. Department of Energy and the Regents of the University of California for the management and operation of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under contract number HR0011-06-C-0073 awarded by the United States Navy. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under contract DE-AR 0000149 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under ARPA-E Award No. DE-AR000300 With Alveo Energy, Inc., awarded by DOE. The government has certain rights in the invention. The United States government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25396 between the United States Department of Energy and Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the operation of Los Alamos National Laboratory. This invention was made with government support under Grant No. FA9550-14-1-0062 awarded by USAF/FOSR. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant No. 1349692 awarded by NSF. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under W31P4Q-09-1-0006 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. N66001-09-C-1010 awarded by the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR) Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) Program of the Department of the Navy, and under Contract No. N00014-07-1-1224 awarded by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) of the Department of the Navy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under grant # CNS1239136 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made with government support under contract number N00019-02-C-3002 awarded by the Department of the Navy. The government may have certain rights in the invention. The subject matter disclosed herein was made with government support under award CNS-1228847 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the herein disclosed subject matter. This invention was made with U.S. government support under contract numbers HM1582-04-P-001 and HM1582-04-C-0010. The U.S. government has certain rights in this invention. The work leading to this invention was funded in part by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), grant number: FA8750-05-C-0150. The U.S. Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. 2005-31100-06015/HAW00948H awarded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Government may have certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with United States government support under a United States Department of Agriculture?Agricultural Research Station Cooperative Research and Development Agreement, Sponsor's Contract Number 58-3K95-4-1668-M. The government has certain rights in the invention. This invention was made, in part, with U.S. Government support on behalf of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Hatch Act Grant No. GEO 01663. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made, in part, with U.S. Government support on behalf of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Hatch Act Grant No. GEO 01663. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made, in part, with U.S. Government support on behalf of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Hatch Act Grant No. GEO 01663. The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under grant number 58-1230-7-439 awarded by the United States Department of Agriculture. The government has certain rights in the invention. The Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Strategic Partnership Projects (SPP) Agreement FRA-2015-0011.? This invention was made with Government support under Contract Number W911NF-10-C-0065 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC 52-06 NA 25396, awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention.